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Research Methodology
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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
a step-by-step guide for beginners
SAGE has been part of the global academic community since 1965, supporting high quality research
and learning that transforms society and our understanding of individuals, groups, and cultures. SAGE
is the independent, innovative, natural home for authors, editors and societies who share our
commitment and passion for the social sciences.
Find out more at: www.sagepublications.com
3
rd edition
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
a step-by-step guide for beginners
Ranjit Kumar
© Ranjit Kumar 1999, 2005, 2011
First edition published 1999
Second edition published 2005. Reprinted 2007, 2008 (twice), 2009 (twice)
This third edition published 2011
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs
and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form, or by any means, only with the prior
permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction, in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the
Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers.
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Library of Congress Control Number available
British Library Cataloguing in Publication data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-84920-300-5
ISBN 978-1-84920-301-2 (pbk)
Typeset by C&M Digitals (P) Ltd, Chennai, India
Printed and bound in Great Britain by TJ International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall
Printed on paper from sustainable resources
To my daughter, Parul
Contents
List of figures
List of tables
Preface
1 Research: a way of thinking
Research: an integral part of your practice
Research: a way to gather evidence for your practice
Applications of research
Research: what does it mean?
The research process: characteristics and requirements
Types of research
Types of research: application perspective
Types of research: objectives perspective
Types of research: mode of enquiry perspective
Paradigms of research
Summary
2 The research process: a quick glance
The research process: an eight-step model
Phase I: deciding what to research
Step I: formulating a research problem
Phase II: planning a research study
Step II: conceptualising a research design
Step III: constructing an instrument for data collection
Step IV: selecting a sample
Step V: writing a research proposal
Phase III: conducting a research study
Step VI: collecting data
Step VII: processing and displaying data
Step VIII: writing a research report
Summary
STEP I FORMULATING A RESEARCH PROBLEM
3 Reviewing the literature
The place of the literature review in research
Bringing clarity and focus to your research problem
Improving your research methodology
Broadening your knowledge base in your research area
Enabling you to contextualise your findings
How to review the literature
Searching for the existing literature
Reviewing the selected literature
Developing a theoretical framework
Developing a conceptual framework
Writing about the literature reviewed
Summary
4 Formulating a research problem
The research problem
The importance of formulating a research problem
Sources of research problems
Considerations in selecting a research problem
Steps in formulating a research problem
The formulation of research objectives
The study population
Establishing operational definitions
Formulating a research problem in qualitative research
Summary
5 Identifying variables
What is a variable?
The difference between a concept and a variable
Converting concepts into variables
Types of variable
From the viewpoint of causal relationship
From the viewpoint of the study design
From the viewpoint of the unit of measurement
Types of measurement scale
The nominal or classificatory scale
The ordinal or ranking scale
The interval scale
The ratio scale
Summary
6 Constructing hypotheses
The definition of a hypothesis
The functions of a hypothesis
The testing of a hypothesis
The characteristics of a hypothesis
Types of hypothesis
Errors in testing a hypothesis
Hypotheses in qualitative research
Summary
STEP II CONCEPTUALISING A RESEARCH DESIGN
7 The research design
What is a research design?
The functions of a research design
The theory of causality and the research design
Summary
8 Selecting a study design
Differences between quantitative and qualitative study designs
Study designs in quantitative research
Study designs based on the number of contacts
Study designs based on the reference period
Study designs based on the nature of the investigation
Other designs commonly used in quantitative research
The cross-over comparative experimental design
The replicated cross-sectional design
Trend studies
Cohort studies
Panel studies
Blind studies
Double-blind studies
Study designs in qualitative research
Case study
Oral history
Focus groups/group interviews
Participant observation
Holistic research
Community discussion forums
Reflective journal log
Other commonly used philosophy-guided designs
Action research
Feminist research
Participatory and collaborative research enquiry
Summary
STEP III CONSTRUCTING AN INSTRUMENT FOR DATA COLLECTION
9 Selecting a method of data collection
Differences in the methods of data collection in quantitative and qualitative research
Major approaches to information gathering
Collecting data using primary sources
Observation
The interview
The questionnaire
Constructing a research instrument in quantitative research
Asking personal and sensitive questions
The order of questions
Pre-testing a research instrument
Prerequisites for data collection
Methods of data collection in qualitative research
Constructing a research instrument in qualitative research
Collecting data using secondary sources
Problems with using data from secondary sources
Summary
10 Collecting data using attitudinal scales
Measurement of attitudes in quantitative and qualitative research
Attitudinal scales in quantitative research
Functions of attitudinal scales
Difficulties in developing an attitudinal scale
Types of attitudinal scale
The summated rating or Likert scale
The equal-appearing interval or Thurstone scale
The cumulative or Guttman scale
Attitudinal scales and measurement scales
Attitudes and qualitative research
Summary
11 Establishing the validity and reliability of a research instrument
The concept of validity
Types of validity in quantitative research
Face and content validity
Concurrent and predictive validity
Construct validity
The concept of reliability
Factors affecting the reliability of a research instrument
Methods of determining the reliability of an instrument in quantitative research
External consistency procedures
Internal consistency procedures
Validity and reliability in qualitative research
Summary
STEP IV SELECTING A SAMPLE
12 Selecting a sample
The differences between sampling in quantitative and qualitative research
Sampling in quantitative research
The concept of sampling
Sampling terminology
Principles of sampling
Factors affecting the inferences drawn from a sample
Aims in selecting a sample
Types of sampling
Non-random/non-probability sampling designs in quantitative research
Systematic sampling design: a ‘mixed’ design
The calculation of sample size
Sampling in qualitative research
The concept of saturation point in qualitative research
Summary
STEP V WRITING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
13 How to write a research proposal
The research proposal in quantitative and qualitative research
Contents of a research proposal
Preamble/introduction
The problem
Objectives of the study
Hypotheses to be tested
Study design
The setting
Measurement procedures
Ethical issues
Sampling
Analysis of data
Structure of the report
Problems and limitations
Appendix
Work schedule
Summary
STEP VI COLLECTING DATA
14 Considering ethical issues in data collection
Ethics: the concept
Stakeholders in research
Ethical issues to consider concerning research participants
Collecting information
Seeking consent
Providing incentives
Seeking sensitive information
The possibility of causing harm to participants
Maintaining confidentiality
Ethical issues to consider relating to the researcher
Avoiding bias
Provision or deprivation of a treatment
Using inappropriate research methodology
Incorrect reporting
Inappropriate use of the information
Ethical issues regarding the sponsoring organisation
Restrictions imposed by the sponsoring organisation
The misuse of information
Summary
STEP VII PROCESSING AND DISPLAYING DATA
15 Processing data
Part one: Data processing in quantitative studies
Editing
Coding
Part two: Data processing in qualitative studies
Content analysis in qualitative research – an example
The role of statistics in research
Summary
16 Displaying data
Methods of communicating and displaying analysed data
Text
Tables
Graphs
Summary
STEP VIII WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT
17 Writing a research report
Writing a research report
Developing an outline
Writing about a variable
Referencing
Writing a bibliography
Summary
18 Research methodology and practice evaluation
What is evaluation?
Why evaluation?
Intervention–development–evaluation process
Perspectives in the classification of evaluation studies
Types of evaluation from a focus perspective
Evaluation for programme/intervention planning
Process/monitoring evaluation
Evaluating participation of the target population
Evaluating service delivery manner
Impact/outcome evaluation
Cost–benefit/cost-effectiveness evaluation
Types of evaluation from a philosophical perspective
Goal-centred/objective-oriented evaluation
Consumer-oriented/client-centred evaluation
Improvement-oriented evaluation
Holistic/illuminative evaluation
Undertaking an evaluation: the process
Step 1: Determining the purpose of evaluation
Step 2: Developing objectives or evaluation questions
Step 3: Converting concepts into indicators into variables
Step 4: Developing evaluation methodology
Step 5: Collecting data
Step 6: Analysing data
Step 7: Writing an evaluation report
Step 8: Sharing findings with stakeholders
Involving stakeholders in evaluation
Ethics in evaluation
Summary
Appendix: Developing a research project: a set of exercises for beginners
Glossary
Bibliography
Index
Figures
1.1 The applications of research
1.2 Types of research
2.1 The research journey
2.2 The research process
2.3 The chapters in the book in relation to the operational steps
3.1a Developing a theoretical framework – the relationship between mortality and fertility
3.1b Theoretical framework for the study ‘community responsiveness in health’
3.2 Sample of outline of a literature review
4.1 Dissecting the subject area of domestic violence into subareas
4.2 Steps in formulating a research problem – alcoholism
4.3 Formulating a research problem – the relationship between fertility and mortality
4.4 Narrowing a research problem – health
4.5 Characteristics of objectives
5.1 Types of variable
5.2 Types of variable in a causal relationship
5.3 Independent, dependent and extraneous variables in a causal relationship
5.4 Sets of variables in counselling and marriage problems
5.5 Independent, dependent, extraneous and intervening variables
5.6 Active and attribute variables
6.1 The process of testing a hypothesis
6.2 Two-by-two factorial experiment to study the relationship between MCH, NS and infant mortality
6.3 Types of hypothesis
6.4 Type I and Type II errors in testing a hypothesis
7.1 Factors affecting the relationship between a counselling service and the extent of marital problems
7.2 The relationship between teaching models and comprehension
7.3 The proportion attributable to the three components may vary markedly
7.4 Building into the design
8.1 Types of study design
8.2 Before-and-after (pre-test/post-test) study design
8.3 The regression effect
8.4 The longitudinal study design
8.5a Retrospective study design
8.5b Prospective study design
8.5c Retrospective-prospective study design