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Pronouncing English
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PRONOUNCING ENGLISH:
A Stress-Based Approach
with CD-ROM
Richard V. Teschner
and
M. Stanley Whitley
Georgetown University Press
Washington, D.C.
Georgetown University Press, Washington, D.C.
O 2004 by Ge rgetown University hess. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
10987654321 20{J/-
This volume is prinfed on acid-free paper meeting the requirements of the American National Standard for Permanence. rn Paper for Printed Library Materials.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Tesclner, Richard V
Pronouncing English : a sffess-based approach, with CD-Rom / Richard
V, Teschner and M. Stanley Whitley.
p-cmIncludes bibliographical references (p. ) and index,
ISBN l-58901-002-7 (pbk. : alk. paper)
l. English language-Pronunciation. I. Whitley, Melvin Stanley, 1948-
II. Title.
PElt37.T44 2004
4283-4e22 2003019467
This book is dedicated by Richard V. Teschner to the me.nlory of his father, Richard
Rewa Teschner (1908-97), germanophone by birth and an avid learner of Englistr, and
to the memory of his mether, Dorothea Joy Griesbach Teschner (1909-20AT, model
speaker, writer, and editor of her native tongue.
It is dedicated by M. Stanley Whitley to his family-l,4ary Jo, Steven, and Philip-for
their love and support, and to his students for what they continue to teach him in their
efforts to master the pronunciation of a second language.
CONTENTS
Preface
List of Symbols
Chapter L The Metric Foot
1.1 The notion of stress: Present stress and absent/null stress
1.2 Metricalism
1.3 The five major metric feet: Spondees, trochees,
iambs, dactyls, and anapests
I.4 Weak stress, null stress, and vowels
1.5 The English drive toward monosyllabicity
1.6 Teaching the topics of chapter I to students of ESOL
Notes
Wrap-Up Exercises
Chapter 2 Strong Stresses and Weak:
How to Know Where They Go
2.1 Strong stress moves leftward, but only so far
2.2 Three main factors in strong-stress position
2.2.1 Syllablestructure
2.2.2 Part of speech
2.2.3 Affixation
2.3 Strong-stress retention on the same base vowel
2.4 Word families with shifting stress
2.5 The effect of suffixation on strong-stress position
2.6 The shiftless, stress-free life of the prefix
2.7 Applying strong-stress rules to bisyllabic words
xl
xltl
I
1
a
J
5
t2
l9
2l
z3
24
27
4.1 LI
31
31
JZ
32
JJ
JJ
36
40
42
vl CONTENTS
2.8 Applying strong-stress rules to trisyllabic words
2.9 Strong-stressing words of four, five, and more syllables
2.IO Weak stress: Placing the strong, locating the weak
2.lI Weak stress on bisyllabic words
2.ll.I Bisyllabics that strong-stress the ult
2.11.2 Bisyllabics that strong-stress the pen
2.12 Weak-stressing trisyllabic words
2.I3 Weak-stressing "four-plus" words
2.13.1 Ult stress patterns
2.13.2 Pen stress patterns
2.13.3 Ant(epenultimate) stress patterns
2.13.4 Pre(antepenultimate) stress patterns
2.13.5 Qui stress patterns
2.I4 Vowel reduction: The price we pay for shifting stress
2.15 Teaching the topics of chapter 2 to students of ESOL
Notes
Chapter 3 Intonation-The Melodic Line
3.1 "Peak" stress for contrast and emphasis
3.2 Some analogies with music
3,3 Stressing compound words and phrases
3.3.1 Two-word compounds and phrases
3.3.2 Multiple-word compounds and phrases
3.3.3 Pitch adjustment in compounds'post-peak words
3.4 Peak stresses and info units
3.5 Melodic lines long and short, falling and rising, and so on
3.5.1 Falls and rises, statements and questions
3.5.2 Fall-rise and rise-fall
3.5.3 Some other melodies
3.6 Melodic lines and compound melodies
3.6.1 Enumeration
3.6.2 Selectionquestions
3.6.3 Tags
3.6.4 Complexsentences
44
45
47
47
47
48
49
50
50
50
51
53
54
55
57
58
61
61
64
66
66
7l
a-IJ
75
79
79
82
82
84
84
84
85
86
CONTENTS vtl
3.7 Approaches to intonation
3.8 Teaching the topics of chapter 3 to students of ESOL
Notes
Wrap-Up Exercises
Chapter 4 From Orthography to Pronunciation
4.I Even Englisft spelling can be reduced to rules
4.2 Consonants: The (somewhat) easy part
4.2.1 The fairly easy equivalencies: Phonemes /tJ h p 0 6 w j/
4.2.2 The tough equivalencies: Phonemes /k s z I S dSl
4.2.3 Grapheme 'i' and the consonants that precede it
4.2.4 When is 's(s)' lsl and when is it lzl, /[], or even ftl?
4.2.5 Grapheme 's' and lsl,lzl, and $/
4.2.6 Grapheme 'x' and the five things it renders
4.3 Vowels: Which are easy and which are tough to spell
4.3.1 Vowels that are fairly easy to spell
4.3.2 Vowels that are tough to spell
4.3.2.1 The four tense vowels /i e o u/
4.3.2.2 Diphthong /ail
4.3.2.3 The mid lax vowels lcl and lt.-l
4.3.3 Vowel phonemes and graphemes:
An encapsulated review
4.4 Vowel reduction redux
4.4.1 General guidelines for spelling the schwa
4.4.2 How to spell unstressed final /erl
4.4.3 The three ways to spell stressed /erl
4.5 Teaching the topics of chapter 4 to students of ESOL
Notes
Wrap-Up Exercises
Chapter 5 Vowels
5.1 Vowels, broadly and narrowly
5.2 How to make vowels: Tongue and lip position
5.3 Other vowels, other languages
88
90
9l
92
95
95
r00
104
108
lll
lt3
ll4
116
II7
t2l
r23
r23
t25
125
t26
l2'l
128
128
t29
r30
131
132
135
135
136
t31
vill CONTENTS
5.4 Stressed vowels
5.4.1 Low lo,l and lal
5.4.2 Mid and high vowels: Tense li e o tl versus
laxheucl
5.4.3 Full diphthongs: /ai oi au/
5.4.4 Uh, er . . . : The lax vowels lN and lerl
5.5 Unstressed vowels: The schwa zone
5.6 Shifting vowels make the dialect
5.6.1 Low back problems
5.6.2 Vowel breaking
5.6.3 Diphthongs on the move
5.6.4 Smootheddiphthongs
5.6.5 Lexical incidence: "You say tomayto and I say
tomahto . . ."
5,7 Rules and regularities
5.8 Other analyses of English vowels
5.9 Teaching pronunciation: Vowels and consonants
Notes
Wrap-Up Exercises
Chapter 6 Consonants
6.1 Consonants and syllable position
6.2 Types of consonants
6.2.1 Voicing
6.2.2 Place of articulation
6.2.3 Manner of articulation
6.2.4 Secondarymodifications
6.3 English consonant phonemes
6.4 Consonants that can behave like vowels
6.4.1 Liquids: /s and rs
6.4.2 Nasals
6.4.3 Goin's'llabic
6.5 Stops
6.5.1 Stops and VOT
6.5.2 Stops that flap
139
140
r4l
145
147
150
152
r52
153
154
r54
155
156
159
l6l
t63
r64
169
r69
17l
t7l
172
t75
176
171
178
178
182
184
185
186
189
CONTENTS tx
6.6 All those sibilants
6.7 Slits up front
6.8 /h/: A sound that can get
6.9 Glides ljl and lwl
6.10 Syllable reprise: How to
6.I1 Teaching pronunciation:
Notes
Wrap-Up Exercises
lost
build an English word
Error analysis
Chapter 7 Sounds and Forms That Change and Merge
7.1 English phonemes in (con)text
7.2 When words change their pronunciation
7.3 Changes due to word linkage
7 .4 Changes due to stress
7.4.1 Speaking metrically
7.4.2 Crushed words: Weak forms and contractions
7.5 Changes due to gralnmar: Morphemes and allomorphs
7.6 Phonology in grammar
7.6.1 Inflectionalmorphology
7 .6.2 A case study: English plural formation
7.7 The phoneme exchange
7.7.1 Vowelalternations
7.7 .2 Consonant alternations
7.1 .3 Rules. constraints. alternations:
How deep does phonology go?
7.8 English spelling revisited
7.9 Teaching pronunciation: Sounds in context
Notes
Wrap-Up Exercises
Chapter 8 Appendix
8.1 Acoustic phonetics
8.2 The International Phonetic Alphabet
8.3 PEASBA's CD: Recordings and Corpus
Notes
191
194
t96
197
20r
205
208
208
2ll
2tr
212
213
215
215
211
22r
223
223
224
229
230
232
236
240
24r
243
244
251
25r
257
259
261
CONTENTS
Glossary
References
Index
263
273
277
PREFACE
Pronouncing English: A Stress-Based Approach (henceforth PEASBA) is a college textbook designed for upper-level undergraduate or beginning-level graduate courses in
English phonetics and phonology. It does not presuppose prior linguistic training; fundamental concepts are introduced as they arise. It is suitable for majors in English or
linguistics in general, and it is addressed in particular to those who plan to be instructors in the various fields of English as a Foreign Language (EFL), English as a Second
Language (ESL), and multilingual education involving English.
Like other major languages, English is multinatiorzcl (used natively in many countries) as well as international (used for intercommunication by people from different
countries around the globe, in addition to whatever languages they may use locally).
Even in the earliest times, the English of England showed multiple varieties, and its
spread over the centuries to other countries produced many more of these. Today, the
more than 400,000,000 speakers of the language show such diversity in their speech
patterns that they are sometimes referred to as a community of "Englishes."
It is nonetheless the case that media, education, and reference materials are dominated by two historically acknowledged standards: Southern British English (with
Received Pronunciation, or RP), and General American. Neither one colresponds to any
one local dialect, or is as homogeneous as it may seem, or differs greatly from the other;
but both are fairly coherent noffns that are regarded as regionally neutral for overall
communication and are worthwhile models to learn and teach. Other local standards,
such as those of Australia or Canada, are more or less similar to these two. In PEASBA
we focus on the prevailing pronunciation of General American English, and we also
point out the major characteristics of RP when different, as well as local variants where
these seem important for analysis and teaching.
Each language has its idiosyncrasies, and those of English are well known. Howevet,
years of teaching a wide variety of students of English have convinced us that its pronunciation must be approached on the basis of the powerful role of stress in the language. This aspect of its phonology receives relatively little attention in pedagogy in
part, perhaps, because it is ignored in the writing system. Yet we have found that virtually all aspects of English pronunciation-from the vowel system (the language's main
b€te noire) to the articulation of syllables, words, and sentences-are determined by the
presence or absence of stress. This is the reason that English can seem more complicated than it is when analysis and presentation begin with the segmental units and work
xll PREFACE
upward. Thus many textbooks describe the schwa sound, point out that "some" vowels
become schwa and that this depends on absence of stress, and then move on to a
description of stress, stress assignment, and the stress patterns and intonation of phrases
and sentences.
PEASBA's approach turns all this around: it starts with an analysis of the cause-the
role of stress in the language-and then proceeds to its effects on pronunciation. In particular, we first prepare a solid foundation in English metricality at the word and phrase
level and then expand in three directions: "upward" toward an appreciation of the interfaces between stress and intonation, "sideward" in the complex relationships between
graphemes and phonemes in an orthographically conservative and form-focused language, and "downward" in a thorough analysis of individual vowels and consonants and
their stress-based variation in context.
In addition, numerous observations on English stress patterns, phonemes, and
orthography are based on original research, as explained in the appendix; PEASBA is in
fact the first work of its kind to be based to a large extent on an exhaustive statistical
analysis of all the lexical entries of an entire dictionary. Our goal, however, is not just
an improved linguistic description of English pronunciation; it is also the improvement
ofhow it is taught, and each ofthe seven chapters points out useful pedagogical generalizations and ends in a section specifically devoted to teaching techniques.
Other special features of PEASBA include the following:
' Frequent exercises, not only at the end of the chapters but after each major point, to
promote analysis, application, and discussion.
. A list of symbols and glossary of key terms for easy reference.
. A CD-ROM containing the data files, called "Corpus," on which many of PEASBA's
statistical observations were based, as well as recordings of many of the exercises.
(Exercises in the book with a listening component are cued by a headphones symbol,
C}.)
' An appendix that provides an introduction to acoustic phonetics, a chart of the International Phonetic Alphabet, and further information on the CD's files and tracks and
on the use of the data in the Corpus.
PEASBA is a textbook that devotes itself exclusively to examining the pronunciation
of English. In courses that also cover additional areas (e.g., grammar and lexicography)
or in programs promoting multileveled language development, PEASBA can be combined effectively with textbooks that have different focuses.
Special thanks go to Gail Grella, Deborah Weiner, and Hope Smith of the Georgetown University Press for their support and assistance with this project, and to Bakhit
Kourmanov, Mary Jo Whitley, and H6ctor Enrfquez for their help in recording the CD.
We also acknowledge the kind permission of the International Phonetic Association to
reprint their current chart in this book.
LIST OF SYMBOLS
The symbols used in this book are summarized by the following list, in roughly alphabetical order. Phonetic symbol names are generally those of the International Phonetic
Alphabet (IPA). For the full set of IPA symbols, see figure 8h in the appendix. Phones
marked with a double-dagger, t, do not normally occur in standard American or British
varieties of English.
symbol name(s)
q
D
a
&
b
fJ
C
d
dg
d"
D
0
e
e
T
e
3
o
f
0
g
G
script a
turned script a
lowercase a
ash, ae ligature
b
beta
curly-tail c
uppercase C
c wedge (hachek) = [t"f]
d
d with ezh
right-tail d
small capital D
eth
e
schwa (turned e)
righrhook schwa
epsilon
reversed epsilon
closed reversed epsilon
f
phi
open-tail g
uppercase G
meamng
low (or open) back unrounded vowel
low (or open) back-rounded vowel
low (or open) central-to-front unrounded vowel
low (or near-open) front unrounded vowel
voiced bilabial stop
f voiced bilabial fricative
$ voiceless prepalatal (alveolo-palatal) sibilant
fricative
consonants: anv consonant
voiced alveolar stop
voiced alveopalatal affricated stop
$ voiced retroflex stop
= [r]
voiced (inter)dental fricative
tense-mid (or close-mid) front unrounded vowel
lax mid-central unrounded vowel
retroflex (r-colored) lax mid-central vowel
lax mid (or open-mid) front unrounded vowel
mid (or open-mid) central unrounded vowel
mid (or open-mid) central rounded vowel
voiceless labiodental fricative
f voiceless bilabial fricative
voiced velar stop
glides; any glide (semivowel)