Principles of Modern Radar

Principles of Modern Radar

Principles of Modern Radar

Vol. III: Radar Applications

William L. Melvin

Georgia Institute of Technology

James A. Scheer

Georgia Institute of Technology

Edison, NJ

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Editor: Dudley R. Kay

Cover Design: Brent Beckley

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN 978-1-89112-154-8 (hardback)

ISBN 978-1-61353-032-0 (PDF)

Typeset in India by MPS Limited

Printed in the USA by Sheridan Ltd

Printed in the UK by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon

Contents

Preface xi

Reviewer Acknowledgements xv

Editors and Contributors xvii

1 Radar Applications 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Historical Perspective 2

1.3 Radar Measurements 5

1.4 Radar Frequencies 6

1.5 Radar Functions 8

1.6 U.S. Military Radar Nomenclature 9

1.7 Topics in Radar Applications 10

1.8 Comments 14

1.9 References 15

2 Continuous Wave Radar 17

2.1 Introduction 17

2.2 Continuous Wave Radar 21

2.3 Frequency Modulated CW Radar 26

2.4 Other CW Radar Waveform Designs 63

2.5 FMCW Radar Applications 67

2.6 References 82

3 MMW Radar Characteristics and Applications 87

3.1 Introduction 87

3.2 The MMW Spectrum 88

3.3 Propagation at Higher Frequency 89

3.4 Antenna Beamwidth Considerations 93

3.5 MMW Performance Limitations 94

3.6 Typical Seeker or Smart Munition Configuration 98

3.7 MMW Radar Applications 108

v

3.8 MMW Future Trends 112

3.9 Further Reading 113

3.10 References 114

4 Fire-Control Radar 117

4.1 Introduction 117

4.2 Airborne Fire-Control Radar 123

4.3 Surface-Based Fire-Control Radar 160

4.4 Electronic Counter Countermeasures 170

4.5 The ‘‘AN’’ Equipment-Designation System 172

4.6 References 173

4.7 Further Reading 173

5 Airborne Pulse-Doppler Radar 175

5.1 Introduction 175

5.2 Geometry 177

5.3 The Doppler Shift and Motivation for Doppler Processing 181

5.4 Range and Doppler Distribution of Clutter 185

5.5 Contours of Constant Doppler and Range 196

5.6 Example Scenario 199

5.7 Pulse-Doppler Conceptual Approach 203

5.8 Ambiguities, Folded Clutter, and Blind Zones 216

5.9 Overview of PRF Regimes 226

5.10 High PRF Mode 228

5.11 Medium PRF Mode 235

5.12 Low PRF Mode 246

5.13 Summary 248

5.14 References 249

6 Multifunction Phased Array Radar Systems 251

6.1 Introduction 251

6.2 Operational Concepts and Military Utilities 254

6.3 MPARS Sizing and Performance Evaluation 257

6.4 ESA Overview 262

6.5 Radar Control and Resource Management 268

6.6 MPARS Technologies 276

6.7 MPARS Testing and Evaluation 280

vi Contents

6.8 Netcentric MPARS Applications 281

6.9 References 283

6.10 Further Reading 283

7 Ballistic Missile Defense Radar 285

7.1 Introduction 285

7.2 BMD Radar System Requirements 292

7.3 Radar Development for Ballistic Missile Defense 298

7.4 BMD Radar Design 307

7.5 BMD Radar Performance Estimation 312

7.6 References 321

7.7 Further Reading 322

8 Ground-Based Early Warning Radar (GBEWR): Technology and

Signal Processing Algorithms 323

8.1 Introduction 323

8.2 Phased Array Antenna 335

8.3 Transceiver 342

8.4 Waveforms and Signal Processing 348

8.5 Tracking 352

8.6 Electronic Counter-Countermeasures (ECCM) Capabilities 357

8.7 Special Functions 359

8.8 Conclusions and Further Reading 376

8.9 References 377

9 Surface Moving Target Indication 383

9.1 Introduction 383

9.2 SMTI Radar Operation 390

9.3 Signal Models 393

9.4 SMTI Metrics 400

9.5 Antenna and Waveform Considerations 405

9.6 Clutter-Mitigation Approaches 410

9.7 Detection Processing 418

9.8 Angle and Doppler Estimation 421

9.9 Other Considerations 424

9.10 Summary 426

9.11 Further Reading 427

9.12 References 427

Contents vii

10 Space-Based SAR for Remote Sensing 431

10.1 Introduction 431

10.2 Historical Perspective 438

10.3 Orbits 451

10.4 Design Considerations for the Spaceborne SAR 457

10.5 Special Modes and Capabilities 473

10.6 Design Example: Germany’s TerraSAR-X 482

10.7 Summary 493

10.8 References 494

10.9 Further Reading 498

11 Passive Bistatic Radar 499

11.1 Introduction 499

11.2 Bistatic Radar 505

11.3 Passive Bistatic Radar Waveforms 509

11.4 The Signal Environment 519

11.5 Passive Bistatic Radar Techniques 524

11.6 Examples of Systems 527

11.7 Conclusions 536

11.8 References 537

11.9 Further Reading 540

12 Air Traffic Control Radar 543

12.1 Introduction – The Task of Air Traffic Control (ATC) 543

12.2 System Requirements/Mission 552

12.3 Design Issues 558

12.4 The Future of ATC Radar 582

12.5 Summary 585

12.6 Further Reading 585

12.7 Acknowledgments 585

12.8 References 585

13 Weather Radar 591

13.1 Introduction 591

13.2 Typical Weather-Radar Hardware 595

13.3 The Radar-Range Equation for Weather Radar 598

13.4 Doppler Processing 603

viii Contents

13.5 Hydrological Measurements 609

13.6 Characteristics of Some Meteorological Phenomena 615

13.7 Sun Echoes and Roost Rings 623

13.8 Advanced Processing and Systems 623

13.9 References 632

13.10 Further Reading 634

14 Foliage-Penetrating Radar 635

14.1 Introduction 635

14.2 History of Battlefield Surveillance 637

14.3 Foliage-Penetrating SAR Collection Systems 642

14.4 FOPEN Clutter Characteristics 645

14.5 Image Formation 654

14.6 Radio Frequency Interference 665

14.7 Target Detection and Characterization 676

14.8 Summary 684

14.9 References 685

14.10 Further Reading 688

15 Ground-Penetrating Radar 691

15.1 Overview 691

15.2 Pulsed Ground-Penetrating Radar System Design 697

15.3 GPR System Implementation and Test Results 731

15.4 Conclusions 746

15.5 References 746

16 Police Radar 749

16.1 Introduction 749

16.2 The History of Technologies that Enabled Police Radar 750

16.3 Review of Homodyne Radar Principles 751

16.4 The First Police Radar 753

16.5 The Cosine Error Caused by Improper Operation 754

16.6 The Next-Generation S-band Radar 755

16.7 The Move to X-band – 10 GHz 758

16.8 A Second Method Used to Achieve the Ferro-Magnetic

Circulator Function 763

16.9 Moving Radar with Improved Detection Range Capability 764

Contents ix

16.10 Moving-Mode Police Radar Operation 766

16.11 Alternative Phase-Locked Loop Signal-Processing Approach 770

16.12 The Move to K-band Frequencies 771

16.13 Police Radar Moves to the Ka-band and Utilizes Digital Signal

Processing 772

16.14 Other Police Operating Modes Made Possible by DSP 774

16.15 Summary 777

16.16 References 777

16.17 Further Reading 778

Index 779

x Contents

Preface

Principles of Modern Radar: Radar Applications is the third of the three-volume series

of what was originally designed to be accomplished in one volume. As the final volume

of the set, it finishes the original vision of a complete yet bounded reference for radar

technology. This volume describes fifteen different system applications or class of

applications in more detail than can be found in Volumes I or II.

As different as the applications described, there is a difference in how these topics

are treated by the authors. Whereas in Volumes I and II there is strict adherence to

chapter format and level of detail, this volume has a wider dynamic range of technical

depth. Some system applications lend themselves to a deeper level of technical

description than others.

What This Book Addresses

Certainly, there are many applications for which radar technology can be applied.

Each chapter in Principles of Modern Radar: Radar Applications discusses a particular

(selected) application or class of applications for the use of radar as a sensor. Not all

applications for radar as a sensor are addressed in this volume, nor could they be.

However, a varied selection of applications are included, providing a fairly broad cross

section of surface-based and aerospace systems, defense-oriented as well as commercial

technologies, and European as well as American systems.

It was difficult to determine which system applications should be selected for this

volume. Some areas of technology are so new that intellectual property rights restricted

us from developing a complete picture of those applications. In other cases, classifica￾tion issues were at play. Even considering these issues, there are many other radar

applications that might have been covered, and a selection had to be made. We hope you

are pleased with our choices.

Why This Book Was Written

The original vision for PoMR was to provide the radar community with a single resource

that described the latest radar technology, as driven largely by advancements in digital

signal-processing (DSP) capability. Since DSP technology is maturing at such a fast

pace, the ability to employ advanced techniques grows with it. The growth of these new

techniques influences the development of advanced antenna techniques as well as sub￾system radio-frequency and intermediate frequency hardware. The first two volumes in

this series describe basic principles, some of which are true for legacy systems and some

of which have experienced relatively recent use, as well as specific advanced techniques

in the use of this technology. So, the first two volumes provide a complete picture of

radar technology from the first principles to the advanced techniques in use today. With

the publication of the first two volumes, it was natural to complete the original vision by

preparing this volume describing selected modern radar applications.

xi

Who Should Read This Book

Different from Volumes I and II, this volume is not intended as a textbook for the

university environment. Rather, it was originally developed to be largely readable by the

layperson, who might not necessarily have all the mathematical and scientific back￾ground to fully appreciate the material in the first two volumes. That stated, this volume

is also intended to fill in some detail, reinforce or expand on fundamental technological

issues described in the first two volumes, and round out understanding of system issues,

at least for a selection of applications.

How the Chapters Are Structured

The framework for each chapter was written roughly to answer the following questions:

What are the system requirements? What are the particular radar issues associated with

these requirements? How specifically are these features incorporated in the system?

Examples of specific systems representing the class of applications discussed

herein support the answers to these questions. Since different radar technology com￾munities sometimes use different, or unique, symbols and abbreviations, many chapters

have a separate table of abbreviations and symbols. It would be more difficult to read if

all of the abbreviations and symbols were consolidated at the end of the book. Since

this volume is not expected to be used as a university text, no student questions are

included.

The History of the PoMR Series

As discussed in the prefaces of Volumes I and II, the PoMR series was originally

planned as one volume, entitled Principles of Modern Radar: Basic Principles,

Advanced Techniques, and Radar Applications. The resulting number of chapters and

sheer amount of the material suggested two volumes: the Basic Principles volume and

the Advanced Techniques and Radar Applications volume. True to form, as Volume II

emerged, it was separated into two volumes, resulting in the current set of three

volumes.

Volume I was written to provide a modern look at the fundamental technology and

design issues related to radar technology in general. It provides an in-depth look at the

modern signal-processing techniques available today, many that were not supported by

the computing resources (signal- and data-processing technology) available even ten

years ago. Volume II was prepared to demonstrate specific signal-processing techniques

that are not required in every system in development but are relatively new to the field of

radar. The current volume, Radar Applications, cites specific examples of the use of

basic principles and advanced techniques.

It is interesting to note that many of the signal-processing techniques in use today

were first discussed in the early (World War II era) series prepared at the MIT Radiation

Laboratory.1 The techniques were known, but available signal-processing technology

1

This refers to a twenty-one-book series of topics related to radar technology titled MIT Radiation

Laboratory Series, McGraw Hill Book Company, New York, NY, 1948.

xii Preface

did not support implementation until modern digital signal-processing equipment

became available.

Acknowledgements

As editors for this volume, we are very grateful to the publisher, Dudley Kay, for his

enduring support and encouragement. Special thanks also go to Brent Beckley for all of

his efforts on the sales and marketing front. We are also grateful to Dudley and Brent for

gathering and managing the unusually numerous volunteer reviewers whose participa￾tion as a ‘‘community effort’’ over the course of the three-volume series has been

remarkable and inspiring.

Most important, though, we remain thankful to our families for their patience, love,

and support as we prepared materials, revised, reviewed, coordinated, and repeated. This

book, like the others, represents time away from the ones we love. We thank them for

their understanding, kindness, and support.

To Our Readers

We hope the reader will enjoy this book! Radar is and will continue to be an immensely

exciting and diverse field of engineering.

Please report errors and refinements. We know from the publication of the first two

volumes that even the most diligently reviewed and edited book is bound to contain

errors in the first printing. It can be frustrating to see such errors persist, even in many

subsequent printings. We continue to appreciate SciTech Publishing’s commitment to

correct errors and enhance the book with each printing. So, it remains a ‘‘community

effort’’ to catch and correct errors and improve the book. You may send your suspected

errors and suggestions to:

[email protected]

This email will reach us and SciTech concurrently so we can confer and confirm the

modifications gathered for scheduled reprints. You are always welcome to contact us

individually as well.

Bill Melvin

Atlanta, GA

Jim Scheer

New Bern, NC

Preface xiii