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Pollution: Causes, Effects and Control
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Pollution:
Causes, Effects and Control
Fourth Edition
Pollution:
Causes, Effects and Control
Fourth Edition
Edited by
Roy M. Harrison
The University of Birmingham, UK
RSC
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CHEMISTRY
ISBN 0-85404-621-6
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
First published 1983
Second Edition 1990
Reprinted 1992, 1993, 1995
Third Edition 1996
Reprinted 2000
Fourth Edition A; 2001 The Royal Society of Chemistry
Apctrt jiom uny. fiiir deuling.fbr the purposes of'rcwurch or priwte study, or criticisin or
reviiw as psrniitted imder the term of the UK Copyriglit, Designs and Putents Act, 1988,
tliis puhlicntion inuy not he reproduced. stored or trunsniitted, in ciny.fbrni or by an?
i1zeun.7, withottt tlie prior pemiission in writing of The Royal Society of' Clieinistry , in the
case of reprographic reproductioii onlv in accordunccJ with tlie terms of the licences issued
by the Copyright Licensing Agiwq in the UK, or in ncc.ordurtc*e with tlie ternis of the
lici~ncc~s issucd bj* the uppropricrte Reprodiiction Rights Orguniziition otitside the U K.
Eiiyuiries concerning reproduction outside the ternis stated here sltould he sent to The
Royctl Society qj' Chemistry ut tlie uddr~~ss printed on this puge.
Published by The Royal Society of Chemistry.
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Registered Charity Number 207890
For further information see our web site at www.rsc.org
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Printed and bound by Bookcraft Ltd, UK
Preface
The subject of pollution remains high in the public consciousness and has been a
significant factor on the political agenda of both developed and developing
countries for a number of years. The subject is now seen as a priority area for
research and for technological developments. It is therefore a fast-moving field
and one where books require updating on a rather frequent basis. The First
Edition of this book was published in 1983 and arose from the collation of
course notes from a Residential School held at Lancaster University in 1982,
supplemented with additional chapters to give a fuller overview of the field.
Subsequent editions have expanded the coverage so as to provide a fairly full
overview of the field of chemical and radioactive pollution. The level of
treatment remains much the same, being essentially introductory, although
covering some more advanced aspects. The very high sales achieved by the book
suggests that this has been very popular and Pollution is used both as a teaching
text and a reference book by practitioners requiring broad knowledge of the
field.
In a fast-moving field it is necessary to scrutinize contents carefully and to
ensure thorough updating. The Fourth Edition of Pollution has one wholly new
chapter on Cleaii Technologies and Industrial Ecology reflecting the growing
importance of pollution prevention as opposed to end-of-pipe controls. Whilst
authorship of the majority of the other chapters remains in the same hands, a
large proportion of these chapters have been thoroughly revised to reflect new
developments in the field. Additionally, some glaring omissions have been
addressed, such as the inclusion of microbiological contamination as well as
chemical pollution of water in the chapter on DrinkirTg Woter Qualitjl and
Health. The subject of sewage sludge treatment is dealt with at greater length in
the chapter on Seitwge and Seitwge Sludge Trc>atr?zeizt reflecting the pressures
generated by the cessation of disposal at sea. Similarly, the subject of local air
Pollutior?,
ion of the
quality management now features strongly in the chapter on Air
Sources, Concentrations and Measurements following the implementa
UK National Air Quality Strategy since its launch in 1997.
Once again, the chapter authors have been selected on the bas
established reputation in the field and their ability to write with
s of their
clarity of
presentation. I am delighted that a high proportion of those who wrote for the
Third Edition have updated their contributions for the Fourth Edition. A
number of those in fast-moving areas have completely re-written their contributions.
V
vi Prejace
Comparing the Fourth with the First Edition of this book, I am struck by the
explosion in knowledge in this vital area. Environmental pollution is now a very
major area of research, consultancy and technological development, and I hope
that this book goes some way towards providing an authoritative knowledge
base for those working within the field.
Roy M. Harrison
Birmingham
Contents
Chapter 1 Chemical Pollution of the Aquatic Environment by Priority
Pollutants and its Control
B. Crathorne, Y. J. Rees and S. France
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Pollution Control Philosophy
1.3 Regulation of Direct Discharges
1.3.1 Dangerous Substances Directive
1.3.2 The North Sea Conferences and OSPAR
1.3.3 Integrated Pollution Control
1.3.4 Water Framework Directive
1.4.1 Product Controls
1.4 Regulation of Diffuse Sources
1.4.1.1 New Substances
1.4.1.2 Existing Substances
1.4.1.3 Dangerous Substances and Preparations
1.4.1.4 Pesticides
1.4.1.5 Biocides
1.4.1.6 Detergents
1.4.2 Controlling Land Use
1.4.2.1 Planning
1.4.2.2 Controls on Industrial Sites
1.4.2.3 Water Protection Zones
1.4.2.4 Nitrate Sensitive Areas and Vulnerable
Zones
1.4.2.5 Groundwater Protection
1.5 Alternative Control Procedures
1.5.1 Voluntary Schemes
1.5.2 Information
1.5.3 Economic Instruments
1.6.1 Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs)
1.6.2 Oestrogenic Chemicals
1.6.3 Pesticides
1.6.4 Mercury
1.6 Case Studies
1.7 Conclusions
1.8 References
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Vlll ... Contents
Chapter 2 Chemistry and Pollution of the Marine Environment
M. R. Preston and R. Chester
2.1 Introduction
2.2 General Features of the Oceanic Environment
2.2.1 Source Terms
2.2.2 Circulation Patterns
2.2.3 Sea Water Reactivity: Biogeochemical Processes
or Classes of Pollutant
2.3.1 Oil
2.3 Sources, Movements and Behaviour of Individual Pollutants
2.3.1.1 The Composition of Crude Oil
2.3.1.2 Fluxes of Oil to the Marine Environment
2.3.1.3 The Behaviour and Fate of Spilled Oil
2.3.1.4 The Environmental Impact of Marine Oil
2.3.1.5 Control and Clean-up Techniques
2.3.1.6 Oil Spill Treatment Technologies
2.3.2.1 Problems Associated with BOD
2.3.2.2 Sewage and Nutrients
2.3.2.3 Marine Disposal of Sewage Sludge
2.3.2.4 Marine Sewage Disposal and Public Health
2.3.2.5 The European Bathing Water and Seafood
Spills
2.3.2 Sewage
Directives
2.3.3 Persistent Organic Compounds
2.3.3.1 Halogenated Compounds
2.3.3.2 Other Persistent Organic Compounds
2.3.4 Trace Metals
2.3.4.1 Mercury
2.3.4.2 Lead
2.3.4.3 Tin
2.3.5 Radioactivity
2.3.5.1 The Natural Radioactivity of Sea Water
2.3.5.2 Radiation Releases from Weapons Testing
Programmes
2.3.5.3 Routine Releases from Nuclear Power Plants
2.3.5.4 Releases from Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing
Plants to Marine Systems
2.3.5.5 Reactor Accidents on Land
2.3.5.6 Dumping of Low Level Waste
2.3.5.7 Naval Sources of Radioactivity to the Oceans
2.3.5.8 The Effects of Artificial Radioactivity on the
Marine Environment
2.4 Conclusions
2.5 References
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Con tcn ts ix
Chapter 3 Drinking Water Quality and Health
J. K. Fawell and G. Stacfield
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Drinking Water Sources
3.3 Drinking Water Treatment
3.4 Sources of Contamination
3.5 Drinking Water Standards
3.6 Microbiological Quality
3.7 Chemical Contaminants
3.7.1 Inorganic Contaminants
3.7.1.1 Lead
3.7.1.2 Nitrate
3.7.1.3 Aluminium
3.7.1.4 Fluoride
3.7.1.5 Arsenic
3.7.1.6 Water Hardness
3.7.1.7 Other Inorganic Contaminants
3.7.2.1 Introduction
3.7.2.2 Disinfection By-products
3.7.2.3 Pesticides
3.7.2.4 Endocrine Disrupters
3.7.2.5 PAH
3.7.2.6 Tri- and Tetrachloroethene
3.7.2 Organic Contaminants
3.8 Conclusions
3.9 References
Chapter 4 Water Pollution Biology
C. F. Mason
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Organic Pollution
4.3 Eutrophication
4.4 Acidification
4.5 Toxic Chemicals
4.6 Thermal Pollution
4.7 Radioactivity
4.8 Oil
4.9 Biological Monitoring of Pollution in Freshwaters
4. I0 Conclusions
4. I 1 References
Chapter 5 Sewage and Sewage Sludge Treatment
J. Lester mid D. Edge
5.1.1 Objectives of Sewage Treatment
5.1.2 The Importance of Water Re-use
5.1 Introduction
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5.1.3 Criteria for Sewage Treatment
5.1.4 Composition of Sewage
5.2 Sewage Treatment Processes
5.2.1 Preliminary Treatment
5.2.2 Primary Sedimentation
5.2.3 Secondary (Biological) Treatment
5.2.3.1 Percolating Filter
5.2.3.2 Activated Sludge
5.2.3.3 Dispersed Aeration
5.2.3.4 High-rate Activated Sludge
5.2.3.5 Conventional Activated Sludge
5.2.3.6 Extended Aeration
5.2.3.7 Contact Stabilization
5.2.3.8 Nitrification
5.2.4 Secondary Sedimentation
5.3 Sludge Treatment and Disposal
5.3.1 Sources
5.3.2 Recycling and Disposal Options
5.3.3 Pre-treatment Handling
5.3.4 Treatment Processes
5.3.4.1 Digestion
5.3.4.2 Lime Stabilization
5.3.4.3 Composting
5.3.4.4 Combustion
5.3.5 Controls
5.4 References
Chapter 6 The Treatment of Toxic Wastes
A. James
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Sources and Types of Toxic Wastes
6.3 Toxicity Problems in the Collection System
6.4 Pre-treatment of Toxic Wastes
6.5 Primary and Secondary Treatment
6.6 Passive Treatment
6.7 Sludge Treatment and Disposal
6.8 Disposal of Toxic Wastes
6.9 Industrial Waste Treatment - Case Studies
6.9.1 Tannery Wastes
6.9.2 Metal Processing Wastes
6.9.2.1 Ion Exchange
6.9.2.2 Evaporation
6.9.2.3 Molecular Filtration
6.9.2.4 Solvent Extraction
6.9.2.5 Electrodialysis
6.10 References
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Chapter 7 Air Pollution: Sources, Concentrations and Measurements
R. M. Hurrison
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Specific Air Pollutants
7.2.1 Sulfur Dioxide
7.2.2 Suspended Particulate Matter
7.2.1.1 Measurements of Sulfur Dioxide
7.2.2.1 Black Smoke
7.2.2.2 Gravimetrically Determined Particulate
Matter: PMlo
7.2.3. I Measurement of Oxides of Nitrogen
7.2.4.1 Measurement of Carbon Monoxide
7.2.5.1 Measurement of Hydrocarbons
7.2.3 Oxides of Nitrogen
7.2.4 Carbon Monoxide
7.2.5 Hydrocarbons
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7.2.6 Secondary Pollutants: Ozone and Peroxyacetyl Nitrate 185
7.2.6.1 Ozone 185
7.2.6.2 Peroxyacetyl Nitrate (PAN) 186
7.3 Air Quality Management 188
7.4 Indoor Air Quality 191
7.5 Appendix 191
7.5.1 Air Pollutant Concentration Units 191
7.5.1.1 Example 1 192
7.5.1.2 Example 2 192
7.6 References 192
Chapter 8 Chemistry and Climate Change in the Troposphere
R. M. Harrison
8.1.1 Pollutant Cycles
8.2.1 The Importance of the Hydroxyl Radical (OH)
8.3.1 Formation of Ozone
8.3.2 Formation of PAN
8.3.3 NO, Compounds
8.4 Atmospheric Acids
8.4.1 Weak Acids
8.4.2 Strong Acids
8.4.3 Sulfuric Acid
8.4.4 Nitric Acid
8.4.5 Hydrochloric Acid
8.4.6 Methanesulfonic Acid (MSA)
8. I Introduction
8.2 Atmospheric Chemical Transformations
8.3 Atmospheric Oxidants
8.3.1.1 Polluted Atmospheres
8.5 Atmospheric Bases
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8.6 Atmospheric Aerosols and Rainwater
8.6.1 Atmospheric Particles
8.6.2 Rainwater
8.7 Atmospheric Composition and Climate Change
8.8 References
Chapter 9 Chemistry and Pollution of the Stratosphere
A. R. MncKmzie
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Stratospheric Ozone Chemistry
9.2.1 Gas Phase Chemistry
9.2.2 Heterogeneous Chemistry
9.3 Natural Sources of Trace Gases
9.4 Anthropogenic Sources of Trace Gases
9.4.1 Direct Injection of Pollutants into the Stratosphere
9.5 Antarctic Ozone
9.6 Arctic Ozone
9.7 Mid-latitude Ozone
9.8 Global Modelling of Ozone
9.9 Legislation
9.10 Summary
9.1 1 References
Chapter 10 Atmospheric Dispersal of Pollutants and the Modelling of
Air Pollution
M. L. Wil1iani.r
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Dispersion and Transport in the Atmosphere
10.2.1 Mechanical Turbulence
10.2.2 Turbulence and Atmospheric Stability
10.2.3 Mixing Heights
10.2.4 Building and Topographical Effects
10.2.5 Removal Processes - Dry and Wet Deposition
10.3.1 Modelling in the Near Field
10.3.2 Emission Inventories
10.3.3 Long Range Transport
10.3.4 Operational Models
10.3.5 Accuracy of Models
10.3 Modelling of Air Pollution Dispersion
10.4 References
Chapter 11 The Health Effects of Air Pollution
S. Walters irnd J. Ajws
1 1.1.1 Exposure and Target Organ Dose
1 1.1.2 Factors Affecting Exposure
1 1.1 Introduction
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11.1.3 What Is a Health Effect?
1 1.1.4 Time Scales of Exposure-Effect Relationships
1 1.1.5 Confounding Factors
1 1.2.1 Experimental Studies
I 1.2.2 Controlled-chamber Experiments
11.2.3 Epidemiological Studies
I 1.2.3.1 Short-term Studies
1 1.2.3.2 Long-term Studies
1 1.2 Studying the Health Effects of Air Pollution
1 1.2.4 Estimating Public Health Effect
11.3 Health Effects of Particulate Matter
1 I .3. I Experimental Studies
1 1.3.2 Ecological Epidemiological Studies
11.3.3 Epidemiological Panel Studies
1 1.3.4 Long-term Epidemiological Studies
11.4 Health Effects of Sulfur Dioxide
1 1.4.1 Experimental Studies
1 1.4.2 Physiological Studies
1 1.4.3 Ecological Epidemiological Studies
1 1.4.4 Epidemiological Panel Studies
1 1.4.5 Long-term Epidemiological Studies
11.5 Health Effects of Nitrogen Dioxide
11.5.1 Experimental Studies
1 1.5.2 Physiological Studies
1 I .5.3 Ecological Epidemiological Studies
1 1.5.4 Epidemiological Panel Studies
1 1.5.5 Long-term Epidemiological Studies
1 1.6 Health Effects of Ozone
1 1.6.1 Experimental Studies
1 1.6.2 Physiological Studies
1 1.6.3 Ecological Epidemiological Studies
1 1.6.4 Epidemiological Panel Studies
1 1.6.5 Long-term Epidemiological Studies
I 1.7 Health Effects of Carbon Monoxide
1 I .7.1 Experimental Studies
1 1.7.2 Physiological Studies
1 1.7.3 Ecological Epidemiological Studies
1 1.7.4 Long-term Epidemiological Studies
1 1.8 Air Pollution and Cancer
1 1.8.1 Problems in Studying Air Pollution and Cancer
1 1.8.2 Airborne Carcinogens
1 1.8.3 Benzene and Leukaemia
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1 1.8.4 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Lung Cancer 288
1 1.9 Conclusions 289
1 1.10 Suggestions for Further Reading 290
1 1.1 1 References 290