Planning and Design of Airports pptx

Planning and Design

of Airports

Robert Horonjeff

Francis X. McKelvey

William J. Sproule

Seth B. Young

Fifth Edition

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About the Authors

Robert Horonjeff (deceased) was an internationally

known consultant on airport design and professor of

transportation engineering at the University of

California, Berkeley.

Francis X. McKelvey (deceased) was a professor of

civil engineering at Michigan State University. He

served as a consultant on transportation and airport

planning to federal, state, and local agencies, as well as

to private firms in the United States and abroad.

William J. Sproule is a professor of civil and environ￾mental engineering at Michigan Technological University.

He has many years of experience in government service,

consulting, and university teaching and research in

transportation planning, traffic engineering, airport

planning and design, and automated people movers in

Canada and the United States. He is active in several

professional societies and is the 2008 recipient of the

ASCE Robert Horonjeff Award for his work in airport

engineering.

Seth B. Young is an associate professor in the Depart￾ment of Aviation at The Ohio State University and

president of the International Aviation Management

Group, Inc. He serves as a consultant and instructor to

airports around the world on issues of airport

management, planning, and design. Dr. Young is the

chair of the National Academies Transportation Research

Board Committee on Aviation System Planning. He is a

certified member of the American Association of Airport

Executives, a licensed airplane and seaplane commercial

pilot, and a certified flight instructor.

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Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

Part 1 Airport Planning

1 The Nature of Civil Aviation and Airports . . . . . . 3

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Commercial Service Aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Passenger Air Carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

International Air Transportation . . . . . . . . . . 7

Air Cargo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

General Aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Civil Aviation Airports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Historical Review of the Legislative Role

in Aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Air Commerce Act of 1926 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Federal Airport Act of 1946 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Federal Aviation Act of 1958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Creation of the U.S. Department

of Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Airport and Airway Development Act

of 1970 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Airline Deregulation Act of 1978 . . . . . . . . . . 31

Impact of Airline Deregulation . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

The Airport and Airway Improvement Act

of 1982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

The Aviation Safety and Capacity Act

of 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

AIR-21: The Wendell Ford Aviation

Investment Act for the 21st Century . . . . . . . . 34

The Aviation and Transportation Security

Act of 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Vision 100 Century of Aviation

Act of 2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

NextGen Financing Reform Act of 2007/

FAA Reauthorization Act of 2009 . . . . . . . 35

State Roles in Aviation and Airports . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

v

Aviation Organizations and Their Functions . . . . . . 37

Federal Agencies of the United States

Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Federal Aviation Administration . . . . . . . . . . 37

Transportation Security Administration . . . . 42

Environmental Protection Agency . . . . . . . . . 42

National Transportation Safety Board . . . . . . 43

State Agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

The International Civil Aviation

Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Industry and Trade Organizations . . . . . . . . . 45

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Web References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

2 Aircraft Characteristics Related

to Airport Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Dimensional Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Landing Gear Confi gurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Aircraft Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Engine Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Atmospheric Conditions Affecting

Aircraft Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Air Pressure and Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Wind Speed and Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Aircraft Performance Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Aircraft Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Payload and Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Runway Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Declared Distances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Wingtip Vortices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

3 Air Traffi c Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

A Brief History of Air Traffi c Management . . . . . . . 96

The Organizational Hierarchy of Air Traffi c

Management in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

The Air Traffi c Control System

Command Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Air Route Traffi c Control Centers . . . . . . . . . 97

Terminal Approach Control Facilities . . . . . . 98

Airport Traffi c Control Tower . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Flight Service Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Air Traffi c Management Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

vi Contents

Airspace Classifi cations and Airways . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Airways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

Colored Airways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Victor Airways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Jet Routes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Area Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Air Traffi c Separation Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Vertical Separation in the Airspace . . . . . . . . 111

Assigned Flight Altitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Longitudinal Separation in the Airspace . . . 111

Lateral Separation in the Airspace . . . . . . . . . 113

Navigational Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

Ground-Based Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

Satellite-Based Systems: Global

Positioning System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

The Modernization of Air Traffi c Management . . . . 127

NextGen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

SWIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

NextGen Data Communications . . . . . . . . . . 130

NextGen Enabled Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

4 Airport Planning Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Types of Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

The Airport System Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Airport Site Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

The Airport Master Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

The Airport Project Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

Continuing Planning Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

5 Forecasting for Airport Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

Levels of Forecasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

Forecasting Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

Time Series Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

Market Share Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

Econometric Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

Forecasting Requirements and Applications . . . . . . 162

The Airport System Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

The Airport Master Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

The Future Aviation Forecasting Environment . . . . 168

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

Contents vii

Part 2 Airport Design

6 Geometric Design of the Airfi eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

Airport Design Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

Airport Classifi cation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

Utility Airports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

Transport Airports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

Runways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

Runway Confi gurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

Single Runway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

Parallel Runways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

Intersecting Runways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

Open-V Runways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

Combinations of Runway Confi gurations . . . . 181

Runway Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

The Wind Rose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

Estimating Runway Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

Runway System Geometric Specifi cations . . . . 201

Parallel Runway System Spacing . . . . . . . . . . 205

Sight Distance and Longitudinal Profi le . . . . 207

Transverse Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Airfi eld Separation Requirements

Related to Runways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Obstacle Clearance Requirements . . . . . . . . . 213

FAR Part 77 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

ICAO Annex 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

TERPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

Runway End Siting Requirements . . . . . . . . . 223

Taxiways and Taxilanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

Widths and Slopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

Taxiway and Taxilane Separation

Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

Sight Distance and Longitudinal Profi le . . . . 234

Exit Taxiway Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

Location of Exit Taxiways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

Design of Taxiway Curves

and Intersections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

End-Around Taxiways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

Aprons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

Holding Aprons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

Terminal Aprons and Ramps . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

Terminal Apron Surface Gradients . . . . . . . . 254

Control Tower Visibility Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . 254

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

viii Contents

Contents ix

7 Structural Design of Airport Pavements . . . . . . . . . 257

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

Soil Investigation and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

The CBR Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

The Plate Bearing Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

Young’s Modulus (E Value) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

Effect of Frost on Soil Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

Subgrade Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

FAA Pavement Design Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

Equivalent Aircraft Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

Cumulative Damage Failure Method . . . . . . 270

Design of Flexible Pavements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

CBR Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

Layered Elastic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273

Design of Rigid Pavements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

Westergaard’s Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

Finite Element Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

Joints and Joint Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavements . . . . 279

Design of Overlay Pavements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

Pavements for Light Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286

Pavement Evaluation and Pavement

Management Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

8 Airport Lighting, Marking, and Signage . . . . . . . . 291

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

The Requirements for Visual Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

The Airport Beacon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

Obstruction Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

The Aircraft Landing Operation . . . . . . . . . . . 293

Alignment Guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294

Height Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294

Approach Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

System Confi gurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

Visual Approach Slope Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

Visual Approach Slope Indicator . . . . . . . . . . 301

Precision Approach Path Indicator . . . . . . . . 302

Threshold Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

Runway Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303

Runway Edge Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

Runway Centerline and Touchdown

Zone Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

Runway End Identifi er Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

x Contents

Taxiway Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310

Taxiway Edge Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

Runway Guard Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313

Runway Stop Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

Runway and Taxiway Marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315

Runways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315

Runway Designators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315

Runway Threshold Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320

Centerline Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320

Aiming Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320

Touchdown Zone Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321

Side Stripes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321

Displaced Threshold Markings . . . . . . . . . . . 321

Blast Pad Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322

Taxiway Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

Centerline and Edge Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

Taxiway Hold Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

Taxiway Shoulders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326

Enhanced Taxiway Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328

Closed Runway and Taxiway Markings . . . . 328

Airfi eld Signage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

Runway Distance Remaining Signs . . . . . . . . 330

Taxiway Guidance Sign System . . . . . . . . . . . 331

Taxiway Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

Types of Taxiway Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

Signing Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337

Sign Size and Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338

Sign Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341

9 Airport Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

Purpose of Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

Design Storm for Surface Runoff . . . . . . . . . . 343

Determining the Intensity-Duration

Pattern for the Design Storm . . . . . . . . . . . 344

Determining the Amount of Runoff by

the FAA Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

Determining the Amount of Runoff by

the Corps of Engineers Procedure . . . . . . . 358

Layout of Surface Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380

10 Planning and Design of the Terminal Area . . . . . . 383

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383

The Passenger Terminal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383

Components of the System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383

Contents xi

Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387

Terminal Demand Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . 393

Facility Classifi cation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394

Overall Space Approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . 396

Level of Service Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397

The Terminal Planning Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399

Space Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400

Other Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415

Overall Space Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416

Concept Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416

Horizontal Distribution Concepts . . . . . . . . . 417

Vertical Distribution Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . 423

Schematic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426

Analysis Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427

Design Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441

The Apron Gate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442

Number of Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442

Ramp Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448

Gate Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453

Aircraft Parking Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455

Apron Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456

Apron Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457

Passenger Conveyance to Aircraft . . . . . . . . . 457

Apron Utility Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461

Part 3 Special Topics in Airport Planning and Design

11 Airport Security Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467

History of Airport Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468

Airport Security Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470

Security at Commercial Service Airports . . . . . . . . . 472

Passenger Screening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473

Baggage Screening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475

Employee Identifi cation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476

Perimeter Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477

Vulnerability Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477

Security at General Aviation Airports . . . . . . . . . . . . 481

Future Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482

12 Airport Airside Capacity and Delay . . . . . . . . . . . . 483

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483

Capacity and Delay Defi ned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484

Capacity and Delay in Airfi eld Planning . . . 485

xii Contents

Approaches to the Analysis of Capacity and Delay . . . . 486

Factors That Affect Airfi eld Capacity . . . . . . 489

Formulation of Runway Capacity through

Mathematical Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490

Mathematical Formulation of Delay . . . . . . . 490

Formulation of Runway Capacity through

the Time-Space Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492

Formulation of Ultimate Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497

Mathematical Formulation of

Ultimate Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497

Application of Techniques for Ultimate

Hourly Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514

Parameters Required for Runway

Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514

Computation of Delay on Runway Systems . . . . . . 520

Graphical Methods for Approximating

Delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525

Application of Techniques for Annual

Service Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532

Simulation Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537

Gate Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538

Analytical Models for Gate Capacity . . . . . . 539

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541

13 Finance Strategies for Airport Planning . . . . . . . . . 543

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543

Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543

Federal Funding Programs in the United States . . . . . 544

The Airport Development Aid

Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547

The Passenger Facility Charge

Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556

State and Local Participation in Financing

Airport Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557

Bond Financing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558

General Obligation Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558

General Airport Revenue Bonds . . . . . . . . . . 559

Special Facility Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559

PFC Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560

CFC Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560

Privatization of Airports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560

Financial Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562

Rate Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564

Evaluation of the Financial Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571

Contents xiii

14 Environmental Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573

Policy Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574

Pollution Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576

Air Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576

Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577

Aircraft and Airport Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579

Sound Pressure and Sound Pressure Level . . . 580

Aircraft Noise Effects and Land-Use

Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592

Determining the Extent of the Problem . . . . 598

Finding Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604

Noise Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609

Construction Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615

Social Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616

Land Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616

Displacement and Relocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617

Parks, Recreational Areas, Historical Places,

Archeological Resources,

and Natural and Scenic Beauty . . . . . . . . . 617

Consistency with Local Planning . . . . . . . . . . 618

Ecological Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619

Wildlife, Waterfowl, Flora, Fauna,

Endangered Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619

Wetlands and Coastal Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619

Flood Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620

Engineering and Economic Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620

Costs of Construction and Operation . . . . . . 620

Economic Benefi ts and Fiscal Requirements . . . 624

Energy and Natural Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . 624

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625

15 Heliports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629

Heliports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629

The Nature of Helicopter Transportation . . . 629

Characteristics of Helicopters . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630

Factors Related to Heliport Site Selection . . . 631

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651

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