Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Fuel Cell Vehicles: Fundamentals, Theory, and Design, Second Edition (Power Electronics and Applications Series)

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CRC Press

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Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv

Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix

1 Environmental Impact and History of Modern Transportation .. 1

1.1 Air Pollution ..................................... 1

1.1.1 Nitrogen Oxides ............................. 2

1.1.2 Carbon Monoxide ............................ 2

1.1.3 Unburned HCs .............................. 3

1.1.4 Other Pollutants ............................. 3

1.2 Global Warming .................................. 3

1.3 Petroleum Resources ............................... 5

1.4 Induced Costs .................................... 8

1.5 Importance of Different Transportation

Development Strategies to Future Oil Supply ............ 9

1.6 History of EVs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.7 History of HEVs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1.8 History of Fuel Cell Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2 Fundamentals of Vehicle Propulsion and Brake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.1 General Description of Vehicle Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.2 Vehicle Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2.2.1 Rolling Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2.2.2 Aerodynamic Drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.2.3 Grading Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2.3 Dynamic Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2.4 Tire–Ground Adhesion and Maximum Tractive Effort . . . . . . 28

2.5 Power Train Tractive Effort and Vehicle Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2.6 Vehicle Power Plant and Transmission Characteristics . . . . . . 32

2.6.1 Power Plant Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

2.6.2 Transmission Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

2.6.3 Manual Gear Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

2.6.3.1 Hydrodynamic Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

2.6.3.2 Continuously Variable Transmission . . . . . . . . 42

2.7 Vehicle Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

2.7.1 Maximum Speed of a Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

2.7.2 Gradeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

2.7.3 Acceleration Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

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2.8 Operating Fuel Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

2.8.1 Fuel Economy Characteristics of IC Engines . . . . . . . . . 48

2.8.2 Computation of Vehicle Fuel Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

2.8.3 Basic Techniques to Improve Vehicle Fuel Economy . . . 51

2.9 Brake Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

2.9.1 Braking Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

2.9.2 Braking Distribution on Front and Rear Axles . . . . . . . 55

2.9.3 Braking Regulation and Braking

Performance Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

2.9.3.1 Braking Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

2.9.3.2 Braking Performance Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

3 Internal Combustion Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

3.1 4S, Spark-Ignited IC Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

3.1.1 Operating Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

3.1.2 Operation Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

3.1.2.1 Rating Values of Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

3.1.2.2 Indicated Work per Cycles and Mean

Effective Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

3.1.2.3 Mechanical Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

3.1.2.4 Specific Fuel Consumption and Efficiency . . . . 72

3.1.2.5 Specific Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

3.1.2.6 Fuel/Air and Air/Fuel Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

3.1.2.7 Volumetric Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

3.1.3 Relationships between Operation

and Performance Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

3.1.4 Engine Operation Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

3.1.4.1 Engine Performance Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . 76

3.1.4.2 Indicated and Brake Power and Torque . . . . . . 77

3.1.4.3 Fuel Consumption Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . 78

3.1.5 Design and Operating Variables Affecting

SI Engine Performance, Efficiency, and Emission

Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

3.1.5.1 Compression Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

3.1.5.2 Spark Timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

3.1.5.3 Fuel/Air Equivalent Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

3.1.6 Emission Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

3.1.7 Basic Techniques for Improving Engine Performance,

Efficiency, and Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

3.1.7.1 Forced Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

3.1.7.2 Gasoline Direct Injection

and Lean-Burn Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

3.1.7.3 Multi- and Variable-Valve Timing . . . . . . . . . . 86

3.1.7.4 Throttle-Less Torque Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

3.1.7.5 Variable Compression Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

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3.1.7.6 Exhaust Gas Recirculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

3.1.7.7 Intelligent Ignition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

3.1.7.8 New Engine Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

3.2 4S, Compression-Ignition IC Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

3.3 2S Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

3.4 Wankel Rotary Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

3.5 Stirling Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

3.6 Gas Turbine Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

3.7 Quasi-Isothermal Brayton Cycle Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

4 Electric Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

4.1 Configurations of EVs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

4.2 Performance of EVs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

4.2.1 Traction Motor Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

4.2.2 Tractive Effort and Transmission Requirement . . . . . . . 109

4.2.3 Vehicle Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

4.3 Tractive Effort in Normal Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

4.4 Energy Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

5 Hybrid Electric Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

5.1 Concept of Hybrid Electric Drive Trains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

5.2 Architectures of Hybrid Electric Drive Trains . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

5.2.1 Series Hybrid Electric Drive Trains

(Electrical Coupling) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

5.2.2 Parallel Hybrid Electric Drive Trains

(Mechanical Coupling) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

5.2.2.1 Parallel Hybrid Drive Train with Torque

Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

5.2.2.2 Parallel Hybrid Drive Train with Speed

Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

5.2.2.3 Hybrid Drive Trains with Both Torque

and Speed Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

6 Electric Propulsion Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

6.1 DC Motor Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

6.1.1 Principle of Operation and Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

6.1.2 Combined Armature Voltage and Field Control . . . . . . 158

6.1.3 Chopper Control of DC Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

6.1.4 Multi-Quadrant Control of Chopper-Fed DC

Motor Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

6.1.4.1 Two-Quadrant Control of Forward Motoring

and Regenerative Braking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

6.1.4.2 Four-Quadrant Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

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6.2 Induction Motor Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

6.2.1 Basic Operation Principles of Induction Motors . . . . . . 169

6.2.2 Steady-State Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

6.2.3 Constant Volt/Hertz Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

6.2.4 Power Electronic Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

6.2.5 Field Orientation Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

6.2.5.1 Field Orientation Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

6.2.5.2 Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

6.2.5.3 Direction Rotor Flux Orientation Scheme . . . . . 189

6.2.5.4 Indirect Rotor Flux Orientation Scheme . . . . . . 192

6.2.6 Voltage Source Inverter for FOC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

6.2.6.1 Voltage Control in Voltage Source Inverter . . . . 195

6.2.6.2 Current Control in Voltage Source Inverter . . . . 198

6.3 Permanent Magnetic BLDC Motor Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

6.3.1 Basic Principles of BLDC Motor Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

6.3.2 BLDC Machine Construction and Classification . . . . . . 203

6.3.3 Properties of PM Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

6.3.3.1 Alnico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

6.3.3.2 Ferrites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

6.3.3.3 Rare-Earth PMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

6.3.4 Performance Analysis and Control

of BLDC Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

6.3.4.1 Performance Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

6.3.4.2 Control of BLDC Motor Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

6.3.5 Extend Speed Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

6.3.6 Sensorless Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

6.3.6.1 Methods Using Measurables and Math . . . . . . 214

6.3.6.2 Methods Using Observers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

6.3.6.3 Methods Using Back EMF Sensing . . . . . . . . . . 215

6.3.6.4 Unique Sensorless Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

6.4 SRM Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

6.4.1 Basic Magnetic Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

6.4.2 Torque Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

6.4.3 SRM Drive Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

6.4.4 Modes of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

6.4.5 Generating Mode of Operation

(Regenerative Braking) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

6.4.6 Sensorless Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

6.4.6.1 Phase Flux Linkage-Based Method . . . . . . . . . 231

6.4.6.2 Phase Inductance-Based Method . . . . . . . . . . . 232

6.4.6.3 Modulated Signal Injection Methods . . . . . . . . 233

6.4.6.4 Mutual-Induced Voltage-Based Method . . . . . . 236

6.4.6.5 Observer-Based Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

6.4.7 Self-Tuning Techniques of SRM Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

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6.4.7.1 Self-Tuning with Arithmetic Method . . . . . . . . 237

6.4.7.2 Self-Tuning Using an ANN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

6.4.8 Vibration and Acoustic Noise in SRM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

6.4.9 SRM Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

6.4.9.1 Number of Stator and Rotor Poles . . . . . . . . . . 243

6.4.9.2 Stator Outer Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

6.4.9.3 Rotor Outer Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

6.4.9.4 Air Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

6.4.9.5 Stator Arc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

6.4.9.6 Stator Back Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

6.4.9.7 Performance Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

7 Design Principle of Series (Electrical Coupling)

Hybrid Electric Drive Train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

7.1 Operation Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

7.2 Control Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

7.2.1 Max. SOC-of-PPS Control Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

7.2.2 Engine On–Off or Thermostat Control Strategy . . . . . . 257

7.3 Design Principles of a Series (Electrical Coupling)

Hybrid Drive Train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

7.3.1 Electrical Coupling Device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

7.3.2 Power Rating Design of the Traction Motor . . . . . . . . . 264

7.3.3 Power Rating Design of the Engine/Generator . . . . . . 267

7.3.4 Design of PPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

7.3.4.1 Power Capacity of PPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

7.3.4.2 Energy Capacity of PPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

7.4 Design Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

7.4.1 Design of Traction Motor Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

7.4.2 Design of the Gear Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

7.4.3 Verification of Acceleration Performance . . . . . . . . . . . 273

7.4.4 Verification of Gradeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274

7.4.5 Design of Engine/Generator Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

7.4.6 Design of the Power Capacity of PPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

7.4.7 Design of the Energy Capacity of PPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

7.4.8 Fuel Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

8 Parallel (Mechanically Coupled) Hybrid

Electric Drive Train Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

8.1 Drive Train Configuration and Design Objectives . . . . . . . . . . 281

8.2 Control Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

8.2.1 Max. SOC-of-PPS Control Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284

8.2.2 Engine On–Off (Thermostat) Control Strategy . . . . . . . 287

8.2.3 Constrained Engine On–Off Control Strategy . . . . . . . . 288

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8.2.4 Fuzzy Logic Control Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

8.2.5 Dynamic Programming Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

8.3 Parametric Design of a Drive Train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

8.3.1 Engine Power Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

8.3.2 Transmission Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298

8.3.3 Electric Motor Drive Power Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

8.3.4 PPS Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302

8.4 Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

9 Design and Control Methodology of Series–Parallel

(Torque and Speed Coupling) Hybrid Drive Train . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

9.1 Drive Train Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

9.1.1 Speed-Coupling Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

9.1.2 Drive Train Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313

9.2 Drive Train Control Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320

9.2.1 Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320

9.2.2 Engine Speed Control Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320

9.2.3 Traction Torque Control Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321

9.2.4 Drive Train Control Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

9.2.4.1 Engine Speed Control Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

9.2.4.2 Traction Torque Control Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . 325

9.2.4.3 Regenerative Braking Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328

9.3 Drive Train Parameters Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328

9.4 Simulation of an Example Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332

10 Design and Control Principles of Plug-In

Hybrid Electric Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

10.1 Statistics of Daily Driving Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

10.2 Energy Management Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

10.2.1 AER-Focused Control Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

10.2.2 Blended Control Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341

10.3 Energy Storage Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

11 Mild Hybrid Electric Drive Train Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353

11.1 Energy Consumed in Braking and Transmission . . . . . . . . . . 353

11.2 Parallel Mild Hybrid Electric Drive Train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355

11.2.1 Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355

11.2.2 Operating Modes and Control Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . 355

11.2.3 Drive Train Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356

11.2.4 Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360

11.3 Series–Parallel Mild Hybrid Electric Drive Train . . . . . . . . . . 365

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11.3.1 Configuration of the Drive Train

with a Planetary Gear Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365

11.3.2 Operating Modes and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367

11.3.2.1 Speed-Coupling Operating Mode . . . . . . . . 367

11.3.2.2 Torque-Coupling Operating Mode . . . . . . . . 368

11.3.2.3 Engine-Alone Traction Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . 369

11.3.2.4 Motor-Alone Traction Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . 369

11.3.2.5 Regenerative Braking Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370

11.3.2.6 Engine Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370

11.3.3 Control Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370

11.3.4 Drive Train with a Floating-Stator Motor . . . . . . . . . . 371

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372

12 Peaking Power Sources and Energy Storages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375

12.1 Electrochemical Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375

12.1.1 Electrochemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378

12.1.2 Thermodynamic Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379

12.1.3 Specific Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380

12.1.4 Specific Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382

12.1.5 Energy Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384

12.1.6 Battery Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385

12.1.6.1 Lead–Acid Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385

12.1.6.2 Nickel-Based Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386

12.1.6.3 Lithium-Based Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388

12.2 Ultracapacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

12.2.1 Features of Ultracapacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

12.2.2 Basic Principles of Ultracapacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391

12.2.3 Performance of Ultracapacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392

12.2.4 Ultracapacitor Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396

12.3 Ultra-High-Speed Flywheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397

12.3.1 Operation Principles of Flywheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397

12.3.2 Power Capacity of Flywheel Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400

12.3.3 Flywheel Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402

12.4 Hybridization of Energy Storages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404

12.4.1 Concept of Hybrid Energy Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404

12.4.2 Passive and Active Hybrid Energy Storage with

Battery and Ultracapacitor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404

12.4.3 Battery and Ultracapacitor Size Design . . . . . . . . . . . 406

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410

13 Fundamentals of Regenerative Breaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411

13.1 Braking Energy Consumed in Urban Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . 411

13.2 Braking Energy versus Vehicle Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413

13.3 Braking Energy versus Braking Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416

13.4 Braking Power versus Vehicle Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416

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13.5 Braking Energy versus Vehicle Deceleration Rate . . . . . . . . . 417

13.6 Braking Energy on Front and Rear Axles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419

13.7 Brake System of EV, HEV, and FCV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420

13.7.1 Parallel Hybrid Braking System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420

13.7.1.1 Design and Control Principles with Fixed

Ratios between Electric and Mechanical

Braking Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420

13.7.1.2 Design and Control Principles for Maximum

Regenerative Braking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422

13.7.2 Fully Controllable Hybrid Brake System . . . . . . . . . . 426

13.7.2.1 Control Strategy for Optimal Braking

Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427

13.7.2.2 Control Strategy for Optimal Energy

Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431

14 Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433

14.1 Operating Principles of Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433

14.2 Electrode Potential and Current–Voltage Curve . . . . . . . . . . 437

14.3 Fuel and Oxidant Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440

14.4 Fuel Cell System Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441

14.5 Fuel Cell Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443

14.5.1 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . 443

14.5.2 Alkaline Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444

14.5.3 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446

14.5.4 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447

14.5.5 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448

14.5.6 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449

14.6 Fuel Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450

14.6.1 Hydrogen Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450

14.6.1.1 Compressed Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450

14.6.1.2 Cryogenic Liquid Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . 452

14.6.1.3 Metal Hydrides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453

14.6.2 Hydrogen Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454

14.6.2.1 Steam Reforming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454

14.6.2.2 POX Reforming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455

14.6.2.3 Autothermal Reforming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456

14.6.3 Ammonia as Hydrogen Carrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457

14.7 Non-Hydrogen Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458

15 Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Drive Train Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459

15.1 Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459

15.2 Control Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461

15.3 Parametric Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463

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15.3.1 Motor Power Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463

15.3.2 Power Design of the Fuel Cell System . . . . . . . . . . . . 464

15.3.3 Design of the Power and Energy Capacity

of the PPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465

15.3.3.1 Power Capacity of the PPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465

15.3.3.2 Energy Capacity of the PPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465

15.4 Design Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469

16 Design of Series Hybrid Drive Train for Off-Road Vehicles . . . . 471

16.1 Motion Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471

16.1.1 Motion Resistance Caused by Terrain Compaction . . . 472

16.1.2 Motion Resistance Caused by Terrain Bulldozing . . . . 475

16.1.3 Internal Resistance of the Running Gear . . . . . . . . . . 476

16.1.4 Tractive Effort of a Terrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476

16.1.5 Drawbar Pull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477

16.2 Tracked Series Hybrid Vehicle Drive Train Architecture . . . . . 478

16.3 Parametric Design of the Drive Train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479

16.3.1 Traction Motor Power Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480

16.3.1.1 Vehicle Thrust versus Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . 480

16.3.1.2 Motor Power and Acceleration

Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481

16.3.1.3 Motor Power and Gradeability . . . . . . . . . . 482

16.3.1.4 Steering Maneuver of a Tracked Vehicle . . . . 485

16.4 Engine/Generator Power Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489

16.5 Power and Energy Design of Energy Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . 490

16.5.1 Peaking Power for Traction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491

16.5.2 Peaking Power for Nontraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491

16.5.3 Energy Design of Batteries/Ultracapacitors . . . . . . . . 494

16.5.4 Combination of Batteries and Ultracapacitors . . . . . . 494

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496

Appendix Technical Overview of Toyota Prius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499

A.1 Vehicle Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499

A.2 Overview of Prius Hybrid Power Train

and Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499

A.3 Major Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501

A.3.1 Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501

A.3.2 Hybrid Transaxle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501

A.3.3 HV Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502

A.3.4 Inverter Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506

A.3.4.1 Booster Converter (2004 and Later) . . 506

A.3.4.2 Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506

A.3.4.3 DC–DC Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507

A.3.4.4 AC Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507

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A.3.5 Brake System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507

A.3.5.1 Regenerative Brake Cooperative

Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509

A.3.5.2 Electronic Brake Distribution Control

(2004 and Later Models) . . . . . . . . . . 509

A.3.5.3 Brake Assist System (2004 and Later

Models) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510

A.3.6 Electric Power Steering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510

A.3.7 Enhanced Vehicle Stability Control (VSC)

System (2004 and Later Prius) . . . . . . . . . . . . 512

A.4 Hybrid System Control Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519