Microcontrollers: High-Performance Systems and Programming

Microcontrollers

HIGH-PERFORMANCE SYSTEMS

AND PROGRAMMING

K16291_FM.indd 1 9/24/13 11:25 AM

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Boca Raton London New York

Julio Sanchez

Eastern Florida State College

Maria P. Canton

Brevard Public Schools

Microcontrollers

HIGH-PERFORMANCE SYSTEMS

AND PROGRAMMING

K16291_FM.indd 3 9/24/13 11:25 AM

CRC Press

Taylor & Francis Group

6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300

Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Version Date: 20130923

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4665-6668-2 (eBook - PDF)

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Ta ble of Con tents

Pref ace xx

Chap ter 1 Microcontrollers for Em bed ded Sys tems 1

1.1 Em bed ded Sys tems 1

1.2 Micro chip PIC 1

1.2.1 PIC Ar chi tec ture 2

1.2.2 Pro gram ming the PIC 2

PIC Pro gram mers 3

De vel op ment Boards 4

1.3 PIC Ar chi tec ture 4

1.3.1 Base line PIC Fam ily 5

PIC10 de vices 6

PIC12 De vices 7

1.3.2 Mid-Range Fam ily 9

PIC14 De vices 9

PIC16 De vices 9

1.3.3 High-Per for mance PICs and DSPs 10

Dig i tal Sig nal Pro ces sor 11

Analog-to-Dig i tal 12

Chap ter 2 PIC18 Ar chi tec ture 13

2.1 PIC18 Fam ily Over view 13

2.1.1 PIC18FXX2 Group 14

2.1.2 PIC18FXX2 De vice Group Over view 15

2.1.3 PIC18F4X2 Block Di a gram 16

2.1.4 Cen tral Pro cess ing Unit 17

Sta tus Reg is ter 17

Pro gram Coun ter Reg is ter 17

Hard ware Mul ti plier 18

In ter rupts 18

2.1.5 Spe cial CPU Fea tures 19

Watch dog Timer 20

Wake-Up by In ter rupt 21

Low Volt age De tec tion 21

De vice Con fig u ra tion 21

2.2 Mem ory Or ga ni za tion 22

2.2.1 Pro gram Mem ory 22

v

2.2.2 18FXX2 Stack 23

Stack Op er a tions 23

Fast Reg is ter Stack 24

In struc tions in Mem ory 25

2.2.3 Data Mem ory 25

2.2.4 Data EEPROM Mem ory 27

2.2.5 In di rect Ad dress ing 28

2.3 PIC18FXX2 Os cil la tor 29

2.3.1 Os cil la tor Op tions 29

Crys tal Os cil la tor and Ce ramic Res o na tor 29

RC Os cil la tor 30

Ex ter nal Clock In put 31

Phase Locked Loop Os cil la tor Mode 31

2.4 Sys tem Re set 31

2.4.1 Re set Ac tion 32

Power-On Re set (POR) 33

Power-Up Timer (PWRT) 33

Os cil la tor Start-Up Timer (OST) 33

PLL Lock Time-Out 33

Brown-Out Re set (BOR) 33

Time-Out Se quence 33

2.5 I/O Ports 34

2.5.1 Port Reg is ters 34

2.5.2 Par al lel Slave Port 35

2.6 In ter nal Mod ules 35

2.6.1 PIC18FXX2 Mod ules 35

Chap ter 3 Pro gram ming Tools and Soft ware 37

3.1 En vi ron ment 37

3.1.1 Em bed ded Sys tems 37

3.1.2 High- and Low-Level Lan guages 38

3.1.3 Lan guage-Spe cific Soft ware 40

3.2 Micro chip's MPLAB 40

3.2.1 MPLAB X 40

3.2.2 De vel op ment Cy cle 40

3.3 An In te grated De vel op ment En vi ron ment 41

3.3.1 In stall ing MPLAB 42

3.3.2 Cre at ing the Pro ject 43

3.3.3 Set ting the Pro ject Build Op tions 45

3.3.4 Adding a Source File 47

3.3.5 Build ing the Pro ject 48

3.3.6 .hex File 48

3.3.7 Quickbuild Op tion 50

3.4 MPLAB Sim u la tors and Debuggers 50

3.4.1 MPLAB SIM 51

Us ing Break points 51

Watch Win dow 52

Sim u la tor Trace 52

3.4.2 MPLAB Stim u lus 54

Stim u lus Di a log 54

3.4.3 MPLAB Hard ware Debuggers 55

vi Ta ble of Con tents

3.4.4 An Im pro vised Debugger 56

3.5 De vel op ment Pro gram mers 56

3.5.1 Micro chip PICkit 2 and PICkit 3 58

3.5.2 Micropro USB PIC Pro gram mer 60

3.5.3 MPLAB ICD 2 and ICD 3 In-Cir cuit Debuggers/Pro gram mers 60

3.6 Test Cir cuits and De vel op ment Boards 61

3.6.1 Com mer cial De vel op ment Boards 61

3.6.2 Cir cuit Pro to type 63

3.6.3 Bread board 64

Lim i ta tions of Bread boards 65

Breadboarding Tools and Tech niques 66

3.6.4 Wire Wrap ping 67

3.6.5 Perfboards 67

3.6.6 Printed Cir cuit Boards 68

Chap ter 4 As sem bly Lan guage Pro gram 71

4.1 As sem bly Lan guage Code 71

4.1.1 A Cod ing Tem plate 71

Pro gram Header 73

Pro gram En vi ron ment Di rec tives 73

Con fig u ra tion Bits 73

Er ror Mes sage Level Con trol 74

Vari ables and Con stants 74

Code Area and In ter rupts 74

4.1.2 Pro gram ming Style 74

Source File Com ments 75

4.2 De fin ing Data El e ments 75

4.2.1 equ Di rec tive 76

4.2.2 cblock Di rec tive 76

4.2.3 Ac cess to Banked Mem ory 77

4.3 Nam ing Con ven tions 77

4.3.1 Reg is ter and Bit Names 77

4.4 PIC 18Fxx2 In struc tion Set 79

4.4.1 Byte-Ori ented In struc tions 80

4.4.2 Bit-Ori ented In struc tions 80

4.4.3 Lit eral In struc tions 80

4.4.4 Con trol In struc tions 80

Chap ter 5 PIC18 Pro gram ming in C Lan guage 85

5.1 C Com pil ers 85

5.1.1 C ver sus As sem bly Lan guage 85

5.1.2 MPLAB C18 86

5.2 MPLAB C18 In stal la tion 86

5.2.1 MPLAB Soft ware Com po nents 87

5.2.2 Con fig u ra tion Op tions 88

5.2.3 Sys tem Re quire ments 89

5.2.4 Ex e cu tion Flow 90

5.3 C Com piler Pro ject 91

5.3.1 Cre at ing the Pro ject 91

Ta ble of Con tents vii

Se lect Hard ware De vice 92

Se lect the Lan guage Toolsuite 92

Cre ate a New Pro ject 93

Add Files to the Pro ject 95

5.3.2 Se lect ing the Build Di rec tory 96

5.4 A First Pro gram in C 98

5.4.1 Source Code Anal y sis 99

main() Func tion 100

Lo cal Func tions 101

Chap ter 6 C Lan guage in an Em bed ded En vi ron ment 103

6.1 MPLAB C18 Sys tem 103

6.1.1 PIC18 Ex tended Mode 104

6.2 MPLAB C18 Li brar ies 104

6.2.1 Start-Up Rou tines 104

6.2.2 On line Help for C18 and Li brar ies 105

6.3 Pro ces sor-In de pend ent Li brar ies 106

6.3.1 Gen eral Soft ware Li brary 106

Char ac ter Clas si fi ca tion Func tions 107

Data Con ver sion Func tions 107

Mem ory and String Ma nip u la tion Func tions 108

De lay Func tions 110

Re set Func tions 111

Char ac ter Out put Func tions 112

6.4 Pro ces sor-Spe cific Li brar ies 115

6.4.1 Hard ware Pe riph eral Li brary Func tions 115

6.4.2 Soft ware Pe riph er als Li brary Func tions 116

6.4.3 Mac ros for Inline As sem bly 116

6.4.4 Pro ces sor-Spe cific Header Files 117

6.5 Math Li brar ies 118

6.5.1 ANSI-IEEE 754 Bi nary Float ing-Point Stan dard 118

Encodings 119

Round ing 119

6.5.2 Stan dard Math Li brary Func tions 120

6.5.3 Float ing-Point Math Sam ple Pro gram 120

6.6 C18 Lan guage Spe cif ics 122

6.6.1 C18 In te ger Data Types 122

6.6.2 C18 Float ing-Point Data Types 122

6.6.3 Endianness 123

6.6.4 Stor age Classes 123

6.6.5 Static Func tion Ar gu ment 123

6.6.6 Stor age Qual i fi ers 123

far and near Qual i fi ers 123

rom and ram Qual i fi ers 124

Chap ter 7 Pro gram ming Sim ple In put and Out put 125

7.1 Port-Con nected I/O 125

7.1.1 A Sim ple Cir cuit and Code 125

7.1.2 Cir cuit Sche mat ics 125

7.1.3 As sem bler Sim ple I/O Pro gram 126

viii Ta ble of Con tents

7.1.4 As sem bler Source Code Anal y sis 129

Com mand Mon i tor ing Loop 129

Ac tion on the LEDs 130

A De lay Rou tine 130

7.2 C Lan guage Sim ple I/O Pro gram 131

7.2.1 C Source Code Anal y sis 132

main() Func tion 133

7.3 Seven-Seg ment LED Pro gram ming 134

7.3.1 Com puted Goto 135

7.3.2 As sem bler Seven-Seg ment LED Pro gram 136

Ac cess Bank Op er a tion 136

Port A for Dig i tal Op er a tion 137

DIP Switch Pro cess ing 138

Seven-Seg ment Code with Com puted Goto 139

7.3.3 As sem bler Ta ble Lookup Sam ple Pro gram 140

7.4 C Lan guage Seven-Seg ment LED Pro grams 141

7.4.1 Code Se lec tion by Switch Con struct 142

7.4.2 Code Se lec tion by Ta ble Lookup 142

7.5 A Dem on stra tion Board 143

7.6.1 Power Sup ply 145

Volt age Reg u la tor 145

Chap ter 8 In ter rupts 147

8.1 In ter rupt Mech a nism 147

8.2 PIC18 In ter rupt Sys tem 147

8.2.1 Hard ware Sources 148

8.2.2 In ter rupt Con trol and Sta tus Reg is ters 148

INTCON Reg is ters 149

PIE Reg is ters 151

PIR Reg is ters 152

IPR Reg is ters 152

8.2.3 In ter rupt Pri or i ties 154

High-Pri or ity In ter rupts 154

Low-Pri or ity In ter rupts 155

An In ter rupt In ter rupt ing An other One 155

8.2.4 Con text Sav ing Op er a tions 155

Con text Sav ing during Low-Pri or ity In ter rupts 156

8.3 Port B In ter rupts 157

8.3.1 Port B Ex ter nal In ter rupt 158

8.3.2 INT0 In ter rupt Demo Pro gram 158

cblock Di rec tive 158

Vectoring the In ter rupt 159

Ini tial iza tion 160

Setup INT0 160

Pro gram Fore ground 161

In ter rupt Ser vice Rou tine 161

Switch Debouncing 162

In ter rupt Ac tion 162

8.3.3 Port B Line Change In ter rupt 163

Reentrant In ter rupts 164

Mul ti ple Ex ter nal In ter rupts 165

Ta ble of Con tents ix

8.3.4 Port B Line Change In ter rupt Demo Pro gram 165

Set ting Up the Line Change In ter rupt 165

In ter rupt Ser vice Rou tine 166

8.4 Sleep Mode and In ter rupts 168

8.4.1 Wake-Up from SLEEP 169

8.4.2 Sleep_Demo Pro gram 170

8.5 In ter rupt Pro gram ming in C Lan guage 171

8.5.1 In ter rupt Ac tion 171

Con text in the Stack 172

In ter rupt Data 172

8.5.2 In ter rupt Pro gram ming in C18 173

Sleep Mode and RB0 In ter rupt Demo Pro gram 174

Port B In ter rupt on Change Demo Pro gram 176

Chap ter 9 De lays, Coun ters, and Tim ers 179

9.1 PIC18 Fam ily Tim ers 179

9.2 De lay Tim ers 179

9.2.1 Power-Up Timer (PWRT) 179

9.2.2 Os cil la tor Start-Up Timer (OST) 180

9.2.3 Phase Locked Loop (PLL) 180

Power-Up De lay Sum mary 181

9.2.4 Watch dog Timer 181

Watch dog Timer Uses 181

9.3 Hard ware Timer-Coun ters 182

9.4 Timer0 Mod ule 182

9.4.1 Timer0 Ar chi tec ture 184

16-bit Mode Op er a tion 184

Timer and Coun ter Modes 185

Timer0 In ter rupt 185

Ex ter nal Clock Source 185

Timer0 Prescaler 186

9.4.2 Timer0 as a De lay Timer 186

Long De lay Loops 187

De lay Ac cu racy Is sues 188

Black–Ammerman Method 188

De lays with 16-Bit Timer0 189

9.4.3 Coun ter and Timer Pro gram ming 189

Pro gram ming a Coun ter 190

Timer0_as_Coun ter.asm Pro gram 190

A Timer/Coun ter Test Cir cuit 191

Timer0 _De lay.asm Pro gram 191

A Vari able Time-Lapse Rou tine 193

Timer0_VarDelay.asm Pro gram 193

In ter rupt-Driven Timer 196

9.5 Other Timer Mod ules 199

9.5.1 Timer1 Mod ule 199

Timer1 in Timer Mode 200

Timer1 in Syn chro nized Coun ter Mode 201

Ex ter nal Clock In put Tim ing in Syn chro nized Mode 201

Timer1 Read and Write Op er a tions 201

16-bit Mode Timer1 Write 201

x Ta ble of Con tents

16-Bit Read-Mod ify-Write 202

Read ing and Writ ing Timer1 in Two 8-bit Op er a tions 202

9.5.2 Timer2 Mod ule 203

Timer Clock Source 204

TMR2 and PR2 Reg is ters 204

Prescaler and Postscaler 205

Timer2 Ini tial iza tion 205

9.5.3 Timer3 Mod ule 205

Timer3 in Timer Mode 207

Timer3 in Syn chro nized Coun ter Mode 207

Ex ter nal Clock In put Tim ing 208

Timer3 in Asyn chron ous Coun ter Mode 208

Ex ter nal Clock In put Tim ing with Unsynchronized Clock 208

Timer3 Read ing and Writ ing 208

Writ ing in 16-Bit Mode 208

16-bit Read-Mod ify-Write Op er a tion 209

Read ing in Asyn chron ous Coun ter Mode 209

Timer1 Os cil la tor in Timer3 210

9.6 C-18 Timer Func tions 210

9.6.1 CloseTimerx Func tion 210

9.6.2 OpenTimerx Func tion 211

9.6.3 ReadTimerx Func tion 211

9.6.4 WriteTimerx Func tion 212

9.7 Sam ple Pro grams 212

9.7.1 Timer0_as_Coun ter pro gram 212

9.7.2 Timer0_De lay Pro gram 215

9.7.3 Timer0_VarDelay Pro gram 216

9.7.4 Timer0_VarInt Pro gram 220

9.7.5 C_Timer_Show Pro gram 224

Chap ter 10 Data EEPROM 227

10.1 EEPROM on the PIC18 Microcontrollers 227

10.1.2 On-Board Data EEPROM 227

10.2 EEPROM Pro gram ming 228

10.2.1 Read ing EEPROM Data 228

10.2.2 Writ ing EEPROM Data 230

10.3 Data EEPROM Pro gram ming in C Lan guage 231

10.3.1 EEPROM Li brary Func tions 232

10.3.2 Sam ple Code 232

10.4 EEPROM Dem on stra tion Pro grams 233

10.4.1 EEPROM_to_7Seg Pro gram 233

10.4.2 C_EEPROM_Demo Pro gram 237

Chap ter 11 Liq uid Crys tal Dis plays 239

11.1 LCD 239

11.1.1 LCD Fea tures and Ar chi tec ture 239

11.1.2 LCD Func tions and Com po nents 240

In ter nal Reg is ters 240

Busy Flag 240

Ad dress Coun ter 240

Ta ble of Con tents xi

Dis play Data RAM (DDRAM) 240

Char ac ter Gen er a tor ROM (CGROM) 241

Char ac ter Gen er a tor RAM (CGRAM) 241

Tim ing Gen er a tion Cir cuit 241

Liq uid Crys tal Dis play Driver Cir cuit 242

Cur sor/Blink Con trol Cir cuit 242

11.1.3 Con nec tiv ity and Pin Out 242

11.2 In ter fac ing with the HD44780 243

11.2.1 Busy Flag and Timed De lay Op tions 244

11.2.2 Con trast Con trol 245

11.2.3 Dis play Backlight 245

11.2.4 Dis play Mem ory Map ping 245

11.3 The HD44780 In struc tion Set 247

11.3.1 In struc tion Set Over view 247

Clear ing the Dis play 248

Re turn Home 248

En try Mode Set 248

Dis play and Cur sor ON/OFF 248

Cur sor/Dis play Shift 248

Func tion Set 248

Set CGRAM Ad dress 249

Set DDRAM Ad dress 249

Read Busy Flag and Ad dress Reg is ter 249

Write data 249

Read data 250

11.3.2 18F452 8-Bit Data Mode Cir cuit 250

11.4 LCD Pro gram ming 251

11.4.1 De fin ing Con stants and Vari ables 252

Con stants 252

11.4.2 Us ing MPLAB Data Di rec tives 253

Data Def i ni tion in Ab so lute Mode 253

Relocatable Code 254

Is sues with In i tial ized Data 254

11.4.3 LCD Ini tial iza tion 255

Re set Func tion 255

Ini tial iza tion Com mands 256

Func tion Pre set Com mand 256

Func tion Set Com mand 256

Dis play Off 257

Dis play and Cur sor On 257

Set En try Mode 258

Cur sor and Dis play Shift 258

Clear Dis play 258

11.4.4 Aux il iary Op er a tions 259

Time De lay Rou tine 259

Puls ing the E Line 260

Read ing the Busy Flag 261

Bit Merg ing Op er a tions 262

11.4.5 Text Data Stor age and Dis play 264

Gen er at ing and Stor ing a Text String 265

Data in Pro gram Mem ory 265

Dis play ing the Text String 266

Sam ple Pro gram LCD_18F_MsgFlag 268

xii Ta ble of Con tents

11.5 Data Com pres sion Tech niques 278

11.5.1 4-Bit Data Trans fer Mode 279

11.5.2 Pre serv ing Port Data 279

11.5.3 Mas ter/Slave Sys tems 280

11.5.4 4-Bit LCD In ter face Sam ple Pro grams 281

11.6 LCD Pro gram ming in C18 291

11.6.1 Ed it ing xlcd.h 292

De fin ing the In ter face 292

De fin ing the Data Port and Tris Reg is ter 293

11.6.2 Tim ing Rou tines 294

11.6.3 XLCD Li brary Func tions 295

BusyXLCD 295

OpenXLCD 296

putrXLCD 296

putsXLCD 296

ReadAddr 296

ReadDataXLCD 297

SetDDRamAddr 297

SetCGRamAddr 297

WriteCmdXLCD 298

WriteDataXLCD 298

11.7 LCD Ap pli ca tion De vel op ment in C18 299

11.7.1 Us ing the Pro ject Wiz ard 299

Main Pro gram File 300

Chap ter 12 Real-Time Clocks 303

12.1 Mea sur ing Time 303

12.1.1 Clock Sig nal Source 303

32 kHz Crys tal Cir cuit 304

12.1.2 Pro gram ming the Timer1 Clock 305

Set ting Up Timer1 Hard ware 305

Cod ing the In ter rupt Han dler 306

Sam ple Pro gram RTC_18F_Timer1.asm 306

12.2 Real-Time Clock ICs 309

12.2.1 NJU6355 310

12.2.2 6355 Data For mat ting 310

12.2.3 Ini tial iza tion and Clock Prim i tives 311

Read ing and Writ ing Clock Data 311

Ini tial ize RTC 314

12.2.4 BCD Con ver sions 316

12.3 RTC Dem on stra tion Cir cuit and Pro gram 318

12.3.1 RTC_F18_6355.asm Pro gram 318

Code De tails 319

Code List ing 319

12.4 Real-Time Clocks in C18 336

12.4.1 Timer1-Based RTC in C18 336

Ta ble of Con tents xiii

Chap ter 13 An a log Data and De vices 343

13.1 Op er a tions on Com puter Data 343

13.2 18F452 A/D Hard ware 343

13.2.1 A/D Mod ule on the 18F452 344

ADCON0 Reg is ter 345

ADCON1 Reg is ter 347

SLEEP Mode Op er a tion 348

13.2.2 A/D Mod ule Sam ple Cir cuit and Pro gram 349

Ini tial ize A/D Mod ule 350

A/D Con ver sion 351

13.2.3 A2D_Pot2LCD Pro gram 352

13.3 A/D Con ver sion in C18 365

13.3.1 Con ver sion Prim i tives 365

Busy ADC 365

CloseADC 365

ConvertADC 366

OpenADC 366

ReadADC 367

SetChan ADC 367

13.3.2 C_ADConvert.c Pro gram 368

C_ADConvert.c Code List ing 368

13.4 In ter fac ing with An a log De vices 371

13.4.1 LM 34 Tem per a ture Sen sor 371

13.4.2 LM135 Cir cuits 372

Cal i brat ing the Sen sor 372

13.4.3 C_ADC_LM35.c Pro gram 373

Chap ter 14 Op er at ing Sys tems 377

14.1 Time-Crit i cal Sys tems 377

14.1.2 Multitasking in Real-Time 378

14.2 RTOS Scope 378

14.2.1 Tasks, Pri or i ties, and Dead lines 379

14.2.2 Ex e cut ing in Real-Time 381

14.3 RTOS Pro gram ming 381

14.3.1 Fore ground and Back ground Tasks 382

In ter rupts in Task ing 382

14.3.2 Task Loops 383

14.3.3 Clock-Tick In ter rupt 383

14.3.4 In ter rupts in Pre emp tive Multitasking 383

14.4 Con struct ing the Sched uler 384

14.4.1 Cy clic Sched ul ing 384

14.4.2 Round-Robin Sched ul ing 385

14.4.3 Task States and Pri or i tIzed Sched ul ing 385

14.5 A Small Sys tem Ex am ple 386

14.5.1 Task Struc ture 386

14.5.2 Sema phore 387

14.6 Sam ple OS Ap pli ca tion 388

xiv Ta ble of Con tents

Ap pen dix A MPLAB C18 Lan guage Tu to rial 413

A.1 In This Ap pen dix 413

A.1.1 About Pro gram ming 413

A.1.2 Com mu ni cat ing with an Alien In tel li gence 414

A.1.3 Flowcharting 415

A.1.4 C Lan guage Rules 417

Com ments 418

Pro gram Header 418

Pro gram ming Tem plates 419

A.2 Struc ture of a C Pro gram 419

A.2.1 Sample Pro gram C_LEDs_ON 420

Iden ti fi ers 420

Re served Words 421

main() Func tion 421

A.2.2 Sam ple Pro gram C_LEDs_Flash 422

Ex pres sions and State ments 423

Vari ables 423

Scope and Life time of a Vari able 425

Con stants 426

Lo cal Func tions 427

A.2.3 Cod ing Style 428

A.3 C Lan guage Data 428

A.3.1 Nu meric Data 429

A.3.2 Al pha nu meric Data 430

A.3.3 Ar rays of Al pha nu meric Data 430

A.3.4 Ar rays of Nu meric Data 431

A.4 In di rec tion 431

A.4.1 Stor age of C Lan guage Vari ables 432

A.4.2 Ad dress of Op er a tor 432

A.4.3 In di rec tion Op er a tor 433

A.4.4 Point ers to Ar ray Vari ables 434

A.4.5 Pointer Arith me tic 435

A.5 C Lan guage Op er a tors 436

A.5.1 Op er a tor Ac tion 436

A.5 2 As sign ment Op er a tor 437

A.5.3 Arith me tic Op er a tors 438

Re main der Op er a tor 439

A.5.4 Con cat e na tion 439

A.5.5 In cre ment and Dec re ment 440

A.5.6 Re la tional Op er a tors 441

A.5.7 Log i cal Op er a tors 442

A.5.8 Bitwise Op er a tors 443

AND Op er a tor 445

OR Op er a tor 446

XOR Op er a tor 447

NOT Op er a tor 447

Shift-Left and Shift-Right Op er a tors 448

A.5.9 Com pound As sign ment Op er a tors 449

A.5.10 Op er a tor Hi er ar chy 449

As so cia tiv ity Rules 450

A.6 Di rect ing Pro gram Flow 451

Ta ble of Con tents xv