Metal cutting theory and practice

Metal Cutting Theory

and Practice

Third Edition

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Metal Cutting Theory

and Practice

Third Edition

David A. Stephenson

John S. Agapiou

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v

Contents

Preface to the Third Edition ............................................................................................................xv

Preface to the Second Edition........................................................................................................xvii

Preface to the First Edition .............................................................................................................xix

Authors............................................................................................................................................xxi

Chapter 1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................1

1.1 Scope of the Subject ..........................................................................................1

1.2 Historical Development.....................................................................................1

1.2.1 Ancient and Medieval Predecessors ....................................................1

1.2.2 Canon Boring .......................................................................................4

1.2.3 The Industrial Revolution and the Steam Engine ................................7

1.2.4 Nineteenth-Century Quantity Production Industries......................... 10

1.2.5 Early Scientific Studies ...................................................................... 15

1.2.6 Twentieth-Century Mass Production.................................................. 17

1.2.7 Numerical Control..............................................................................20

References..................................................................................................................22

Chapter 2 Metal-Cutting Operations..........................................................................................27

2.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................27

2.2 Turning ............................................................................................................27

2.2.1 Hard Turning......................................................................................29

2.3 Boring..............................................................................................................30

2.4 Drilling ............................................................................................................ 31

2.4.1 Deep-Hole Drilling ............................................................................34

2.4.2 Microdrilling......................................................................................37

2.5 Reaming...........................................................................................................37

2.6 Milling.............................................................................................................37

2.7 Planing and Shaping........................................................................................44

2.8 Broaching ........................................................................................................ 45

2.9 Tapping and Threading ...................................................................................46

2.10 Grinding and Related Abrasive Processes ......................................................56

2.11 Roller Burnishing ............................................................................................64

2.12 Deburring ........................................................................................................65

2.13 Examples .........................................................................................................66

2.14 Problems.......................................................................................................... 78

References..................................................................................................................80

Chapter 3 Machine Tools............................................................................................................83

3.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................83

3.2 Production Machine Tools...............................................................................83

3.3 CNC Machine Tools and CNC-Based Manufacturing Systems......................88

3.3.1 General ...............................................................................................88

3.3.2 Types of CNC Machines....................................................................89

3.3.3 CNC-Based Manufacturing Systems .................................................99

vi Contents

3.4 Machine Tool Structures ............................................................................... 108

3.5 Slides and Guideways.................................................................................... 119

3.6 Axis Drives.................................................................................................... 122

3.7 Spindles ......................................................................................................... 127

3.8 Coolant Systems............................................................................................ 141

3.9 Tool Changing Systems................................................................................. 142

3.10 Pallets ............................................................................................................ 145

3.11 Energy Use in CNC-Machining Centers....................................................... 146

3.12 Examples ....................................................................................................... 147

References................................................................................................................ 150

Chapter 4 Cutting Tools............................................................................................................ 159

4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 159

4.2 Cutting-Tool Materials................................................................................... 159

4.2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 159

4.2.2 Material Properties........................................................................... 159

4.2.2.1 High-Speed Steel (HSS) and Related Materials............... 163

4.2.2.2 Sintered Tungsten Carbide (WC)...................................... 164

4.2.2.3 Cermets............................................................................. 166

4.2.2.4 Ceramics........................................................................... 167

4.2.2.5 Polycrystalline Tools......................................................... 169

4.2.2.6 Polycrystalline Cubic Boron Nitride (PCBN) .................. 170

4.2.2.7 Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD)....................................... 171

4.3 Tool Coatings................................................................................................. 172

4.3.1 Coating Methods.............................................................................. 172

4.3.2 Conventional Coating Materials....................................................... 174

4.3.3 Diamond and CBN Coatings............................................................ 177

4.4 Basic Types of Cutting Tools......................................................................... 178

4.5 Turning Tools................................................................................................. 179

4.5.1 Indexable Inserts .............................................................................. 179

4.5.2 Groove Geometry (Chip Breaker).................................................... 183

4.5.3 Edge Preparations ............................................................................ 183

4.5.4 Wiper Geometry............................................................................... 185

4.5.5 Insert Clamping Methods................................................................. 185

4.5.6 Tool Angles ...................................................................................... 186

4.5.7 Thread Turning Tools....................................................................... 187

4.5.8 Grooving and Cutoff Tools............................................................... 188

4.5.9 Form Tools ....................................................................................... 189

4.6 Boring Tools.................................................................................................. 190

4.6.1 Single Point Boring Tools................................................................. 190

4.6.2 Multipoint Boring Tools................................................................... 196

4.7 Milling Tools................................................................................................. 196

4.7.1 Types of Milling Cutters.................................................................. 197

4.7.2 Cutter Design....................................................................................200

4.7.3 Milling Inserts and Edge Clamping Methods..................................208

4.8 Drilling Tools ................................................................................................209

4.8.1 Twist Drill Structural Properties...................................................... 211

4.8.2 Twist Drill Point Geometries ........................................................... 214

4.8.3 Spade and Indexable Drills..............................................................223

Contents vii

4.8.4 Subland and Step Drills....................................................................227

4.8.5 Multi-Tip (Deep Hole) Drills............................................................228

4.8.6 Other Types of Drills........................................................................ 233

4.8.7 Chip Removal...................................................................................234

4.8.8 Drill Life and Accuracy ...................................................................237

4.8.9 Hole Deburring Tools....................................................................... 239

4.9 Reamers.........................................................................................................242

4.9.1 Types of Reamers.............................................................................243

4.9.2 Reamer Geometry ............................................................................244

4.10 Threading Tools.............................................................................................246

4.10.1 Taps ..................................................................................................246

4.10.2 Thread Mills..................................................................................... 253

4.11 Grinding Wheels........................................................................................... 255

4.11.1 Abrasives.......................................................................................... 255

4.11.2 Bonds................................................................................................ 257

4.11.3 Wheel Grades and Grit Sizes........................................................... 257

4.11.4 Operational Factors..........................................................................259

4.12 Microsizing and Honing Tools......................................................................260

4.13 Burnishing Tools ...........................................................................................263

4.14 Examples .......................................................................................................263

4.15 Problems........................................................................................................ 274

References................................................................................................................ 275

Chapter 5 Toolholders and Workholders .................................................................................. 281

5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 281

5.2 Toolholding Systems ..................................................................................... 281

5.2.1 General ............................................................................................. 281

5.2.2 Modular and Quick-Change Toolholding Systems..........................284

5.3 Toolholder/Spindle Connections ...................................................................290

5.3.1 General .............................................................................................290

5.3.2 Conventional Tapered “CAT-V” Connection ...................................295

5.3.3 Face-Contact CAT-V Interfaces.......................................................303

5.3.4 HSK Interface...................................................................................309

5.3.5 Proprietary Interfaces....................................................................... 314

5.3.6 Quick-Change Interfaces (Toolholders/Adapters)............................ 316

5.3.7 Toolholders for Turning Machines................................................... 322

5.3.8 Evaluation and Comparison of Toolholder/Spindle Interface.......... 323

5.4 Cutting Tool Clamping Systems.................................................................... 328

5.4.1 Milling Cutter Drives....................................................................... 328

5.4.2 Side-Lock-Type Chucks.................................................................... 330

5.4.3 Collet Chucks................................................................................... 331

5.4.4 Hydraulic Chucks............................................................................. 336

5.4.5 Milling Chucks................................................................................. 338

5.4.6 Shrink-Fit Chucks............................................................................. 339

5.4.7 Proprietary Chucks........................................................................... 341

5.4.8 Tapping Attachments .......................................................................344

5.4.9 Reaming Attachments...................................................................... 345

5.4.10 Comparison of Cutting Tool Clamping Systems.............................. 345

5.5 Balancing Requirements for Toolholders...................................................... 358

viii Contents

5.6 Fixtures.......................................................................................................... 362

5.6.1 General ............................................................................................. 362

5.6.2 Types of Fixtures..............................................................................364

5.6.3 Fixture Analysis............................................................................... 370

5.7 Examples ....................................................................................................... 373

5.8 Problems........................................................................................................387

References................................................................................................................387

Chapter 6 Mechanics of Cutting ............................................................................................... 393

6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 393

6.2 Measurement of Cutting Forces and Chip Thickness................................... 393

6.3 Force Components......................................................................................... 395

6.4 Empirical Force Models................................................................................ 401

6.5 Specific Cutting Power..................................................................................402

6.6 Chip Formation and Primary Plastic Deformation .......................................404

6.7 Tool–Chip Friction and Secondary Deformation.......................................... 412

6.8 Shear Plane and Slip-Line Theories for Continuous Chip Formation .......... 416

6.9 Shear Plane Models for Oblique Cutting.......................................................420

6.10 Shear Zone Models........................................................................................ 422

6.11 Minimum Work and Uniqueness Assumptions.............................................425

6.12 Finite Element Models...................................................................................426

6.13 Discontinuous Chip Formation ..................................................................... 431

6.14 Built-Up Edge Formation .............................................................................. 434

6.15 Examples ....................................................................................................... 436

6.16 Problems........................................................................................................ 438

References................................................................................................................ 439

Chapter 7 Cutting Temperatures...............................................................................................449

7.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................449

7.2 Measurement of Cutting Temperatures.........................................................449

7.2.1 Tool–Work Thermocouple Method and Related Techniques...........449

7.2.2 Conventional Thermocouple Methods............................................. 453

7.2.3 Metallurgical Methods..................................................................... 454

7.2.4 Infrared Methods.............................................................................. 454

7.2.5 Other Methods.................................................................................. 456

7.3 Factors Affecting Cutting Temperatures....................................................... 456

7.4 Analytical Models for Steady-State Temperatures........................................ 457

7.5 Finite Element and Other Numerical Models ...............................................463

7.6 Temperatures in Interrupted Cutting.............................................................467

7.7 Temperatures in Drilling ...............................................................................469

7.8 Thermal Expansion ....................................................................................... 471

7.9 Examples ....................................................................................................... 472

7.10 Problem.......................................................................................................... 476

References................................................................................................................ 476

Chapter 8 Machining Process Analysis....................................................................................483

8.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................483

8.2 Turning ..........................................................................................................484

8.3 Boring............................................................................................................486

Contents ix

8.4 Milling.........................................................................................................487

8.4.1 Face Milling ................................................................................489

8.4.2 End Milling .................................................................................490

8.4.3 Ball End Milling..........................................................................494

8.5 Drilling ........................................................................................................494

8.6 Force Equations and Baseline Data.............................................................502

8.7 Process Simulation Application Examples..................................................507

8.8 Finite Element Analysis for Clamping, Fixturing, and Workpiece

Distortion Applications ............................................................................... 512

8.9 Finite Element Application Examples......................................................... 514

8.10 Examples ..................................................................................................... 519

8.11 Problems......................................................................................................524

References................................................................................................................ 525

Chapter 9 Tool Wear and Tool Life........................................................................................... 529

9.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 529

9.2 Types of Tool Wear...................................................................................... 530

9.3 Measurement of Tool Wear ......................................................................... 537

9.4 Tool Wear Mechanisms............................................................................... 538

9.5 Tool Wear: Material Considerations............................................................ 541

9.6 Tool Life Testing..........................................................................................548

9.7 Tool Life Equations.....................................................................................549

9.8 Prediction of Tool Wear Rates..................................................................... 551

9.9 Tool Fracture and Edge Chipping ............................................................... 554

9.10 Drill Wear and Breakage............................................................................. 556

9.11 Thermal Cracking and Tool Fracture in Milling ........................................560

9.12 Tool Wear Monitoring ................................................................................. 561

9.13 Examples ..................................................................................................... 562

9.14 Problems......................................................................................................568

References................................................................................................................569

Chapter 10 Surface Finish, Integrity, and Flatness..................................................................... 575

10.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 575

10.2 Measurement of Surface Finish................................................................... 576

10.2.1 Stylus Measurements................................................................... 576

10.2.2 Other Methods............................................................................. 581

10.3 Surface Finish in Turning and Boring......................................................... 582

10.4 Surface Finish in Milling ............................................................................ 586

10.5 Surface Finish in Drilling and Reaming .....................................................590

10.6 Surface Finish in Grinding..........................................................................590

10.7 Residual Stresses in Machined Surfaces.....................................................592

10.8 White Layer Formation ...............................................................................594

10.9 Surface Burning in Grinding....................................................................... 595

10.10 Measurement of Surface Flatness ...............................................................597

10.11 Surface Flatness Compensation in Face Milling.........................................599

10.11.1 Tool Path Direction Compensation .............................................600

10.11.2 Depth of Cut Compensation ........................................................603

10.11.3 Tool Feed Compensation.............................................................605

x Contents

10.11.4 Spindle-Part Tilt Compensation ..................................................606

10.11.5 Surface Flatness Compensation Methods Characteristics ..........608

10.12 Examples .....................................................................................................609

10.13 Problems...................................................................................................... 618

References................................................................................................................ 618

Chapter 11 Machinability of Materials....................................................................................... 623

11.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 623

11.2 Machinability Criteria, Tests, and Indices .................................................. 623

11.3 Chip Control ................................................................................................ 627

11.4 Burr Formation and Control........................................................................ 633

11.5 Machinability of Engineering Materials..................................................... 638

11.5.1 Magnesium Alloys....................................................................... 638

11.5.2 Aluminum Alloys........................................................................640

11.5.3 Metal Matrix Composites............................................................642

11.5.4 Copper Alloys..............................................................................643

11.5.5 Cast Iron ......................................................................................644

11.5.6 Carbon and Low Alloy Steels .....................................................647

11.5.7 Stainless Steels............................................................................650

11.5.8 Powder Metal (P/M) Materials.................................................... 652

11.5.9 Titanium Alloys........................................................................... 653

11.5.10 Nickel Alloys...............................................................................654

11.5.11 Depleted Uranium Alloys............................................................656

References................................................................................................................ 657

Chapter 12 Machining Dynamics...............................................................................................665

12.1 Introduction .................................................................................................665

12.2 Vibration Analysis Methods........................................................................665

12.3 Vibration of Discrete (Lumped Mass) Systems...........................................666

12.3.1 Single Degree-of-Freedom (SDOF) Systems..............................668

12.3.2 Multiple Degree-of-Freedom (MDOF) Systems......................... 673

12.4 Types of Machine Tool Vibration................................................................ 678

12.5 Forced Vibration..........................................................................................680

12.6 Self-Excited Vibrations (Chatter) ................................................................683

12.6.1 Regenerative Chatter, Prediction of Stability Charts (Lobes).....684

12.6.2 Tlusty’s Theory............................................................................687

12.6.3 Shear Plane Method.....................................................................694

12.6.4 Other Methods.............................................................................695

12.6.5 Nonregenerative Chatter, Mode Coupling...................................698

12.7 Chatter Prediction........................................................................................700

12.7.1 Experimental Machine Tool Vibration Analysis......................... 701

12.7.2 Measurement of Transfer Functions............................................702

12.8 Vibration Control.........................................................................................706

12.8.1 Stiffness Improvement.................................................................706

12.8.2 Isolation .......................................................................................707

12.8.3 Damping and Dynamic Absorption ............................................707

12.8.4 Tool Design..................................................................................709

12.8.5 Variation of Process Parameters..................................................709

Contents xi

12.9 Active Vibration Control ............................................................................. 710

12.10 Examples ..................................................................................................... 716

12.11 Problems...................................................................................................... 739

References................................................................................................................ 743

Chapter 13 Machining Economics and Optimization ................................................................ 751

13.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 751

13.2 Role of a Computerized Optimization System.............................................. 753

13.3 Economic Considerations.............................................................................. 755

13.4 Optimization of Machining Systems: Basic Factors..................................... 756

13.5 Optimization of Machining Conditions ........................................................ 757

13.6 Formulation of the Optimization Problem .................................................... 758

13.6.1 Formulation of Objective Function .................................................. 758

13.6.2 Constraints........................................................................................ 761

13.6.3 Problem Statement ........................................................................... 763

13.7 Optimization Techniques ..............................................................................764

13.7.1 Single-Pass Operation ......................................................................764

13.7.2 Multipass Operation .........................................................................764

13.7.3 Single-Station Multifunctional System (SSMS)............................... 765

13.7.4 Multistage Machining System.......................................................... 765

13.7.5 Cutting Tool Replacement Strategies............................................... 766

13.7.6 Cutting Tool Strategies for Multifunctional Part

Configurations......................................................................... 767

13.8 Examples ....................................................................................................... 768

13.9 Problems........................................................................................................ 776

References................................................................................................................777

Chapter 14 Cutting Fluids........................................................................................................... 783

14.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 783

14.2 Types of Cutting Fluids.................................................................................784

14.2.1 Neat Oils...........................................................................................784

14.2.2 Water-Based Fluids ..........................................................................784

14.2.3 Gaseous Fluids................................................................................. 786

14.2.4 Air–Oil Mists (Aerosols).................................................................. 787

14.2.5 Cryogenic Fluids.............................................................................. 788

14.3 Coolant Application ...................................................................................... 788

14.4 Filtering ......................................................................................................... 789

14.5 Condition Monitoring and Waste Treatment.................................................794

14.6 Health and Safety Concerns.......................................................................... 795

14.6.1 Toxicity.............................................................................................796

14.6.2 Dermatitis.........................................................................................796

14.6.3 Respiratory Disorders.......................................................................796

14.6.4 Microbial Infections.........................................................................796

14.6.5 Cancer ..............................................................................................797

14.7 Dry and Near-Dry Machining Methods........................................................797

14.8 Test Procedure for Cutting Fluid Evaluation................................................. 798

References................................................................................................................ 798

xii Contents

Chapter 15 Minimum Quantity Lubrication...............................................................................803

15.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................803

15.2 MQL System Types.......................................................................................803

15.2.1 External and Internal Mist Delivery ................................................804

15.2.2 One- and Two-Channel MQL Systems............................................805

15.3 MQL Oils.......................................................................................................809

15.4 Machine Tools for MQL................................................................................ 810

15.5 MQL Cutting Tools ....................................................................................... 812

15.6 Thermal Management and Dimensional Control.......................................... 817

15.7 Air and Chip Handling.................................................................................. 818

15.8 MQL Research Areas.................................................................................... 819

15.8.1 Hard Alloy Machining and Grinding............................................... 819

15.8.2 Alternative Carrying Gases and Cooling Strategies........................820

15.8.3 MQL Process Modeling ...................................................................820

15.8.4 Oil Additives and Ionic Fluids......................................................... 821

References................................................................................................................822

Chapter 16 Accuracy and Error Compensation of CNC Machining Systems............................827

16.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................827

16.2 Machine Tool Errors......................................................................................828

16.3 Machine Tool Accuracy Characterization..................................................... 837

16.4 Machine Tool Performance Evaluation ......................................................... 839

16.5 Method for Compensating the Dimensional Accuracy of CNC

Machining System.........................................................................................865

16.5.1 Error Reduction and Compensation Strategies................................865

16.5.2 Error Modeling Methods.................................................................. 872

16.5.3 Error Compensation Offset Methods...............................................877

16.6 Examples .......................................................................................................882

References................................................................................................................889

Chapter 17 Gear Machining .......................................................................................................897

17.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................897

17.2 Gear Types and Geometry.............................................................................897

17.2.1 Gear Types .......................................................................................897

17.2.2 Gear Geometry and Accuracy Classes.............................................898

17.3 Tooth Machining Methods for Parallel Axis Gears......................................900

17.3.1 Broaching ......................................................................................... 901

17.3.2 Form Milling....................................................................................904

17.3.3 Hobbing............................................................................................905

17.3.4 Shaping.............................................................................................907

17.3.5 Form Grinding from the Solid .........................................................909

17.4 Bevel and Hypoid Gear Machining...............................................................909

17.4.1 Peripheral Milling ............................................................................ 910

17.4.2 Face Milling ..................................................................................... 912

17.4.3 Face Hobbing.................................................................................... 913

17.5 Five-Axis Machining of Gears...................................................................... 914

17.5.1 Parallel Axis Gears .......................................................................... 915

17.5.2 Bevel Gears ...................................................................................... 916

Contents xiii

17.6 Gear Tooth Finishing Methods...................................................................... 917

17.6.1 Shaving............................................................................................. 917

17.6.2 Skiving (Hard Finishing) ................................................................. 919

17.6.2.1 Skiving: Hard Recutting Processes .................................. 919

17.6.2.2 Skiving: Other Processes..................................................920

17.6.3 Grinding ...........................................................................................920

17.6.3.1 Form Grinding.................................................................. 921

17.6.3.2 Indexing Generating Grinding .........................................922

17.6.3.3 Continuous Generating Grinding .....................................923

17.6.4 Honing..............................................................................................924

17.6.5 Lapping.............................................................................................925

References................................................................................................................926

Index.............................................................................................................................................. 933

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