Mechatronics

MECHATRONICS

SABRI CETINKUNT

University o f Illinois at Chicago

C',?f)ẠiHiỊCKTC2Ì^

‘" T h ư v i ệ i M

P H Ò N G Đ ệ K '

WILEY

JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.

MECHATRONICS

SABRI CETINKUNT

University o f Illinois at Chicago

ĨRiíã';?RẠlKyCKĩCÔ:-!íjNGHitP

t h ư v ỉ ẹ n

PHỒNÍ3 BỘí-i

WILEY

JOHN WILEY & SO NS. INC.

Associate Publisher Daniel Sayre

Acquisition Editor Joseph Hayton

Senior Production Editor Sujhi Hong

Marketing Manager Frank Lyman

Design Director Harry Noian

Senior Designer Kevin Murphy

Senior Illustration Editor Sigmund Malinowski

Editorial Assistant Marỵ Moran-McGee

This book was set in Times Roman by TechBooks

The book Is printed on acid-free paper, oc

Copyright (c) 2007 John Wiley & Sons. Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any

means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under

Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the

Publisher or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center.

Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive. Danvers, MA 01923. website www.copyrighf.com. Requests to the Publisher for

permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department. John Wiley & Sons. Inc.. 111 River Sưeei.

Hoboken. NJ 07030-5774. (201) 748-6011. fax (201) 748-6008. website www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

To order books or for customer ser\’ice. please call 1 -800-CALL WILEY (225-5945).

Library o f Congress Cataloging in Publication Data :

Cetinkunt. Sabri.

Mechatronics/Sabri Cetinkunt.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN-13 978^471-47987-1 (cloth)

ISBN-10 0-471 -47987-X (cloth)

I. Mechatronics. Ỉ. Title.

TJI63.I2.C43 2006

621—dc22 2005031908

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I

CONTENTS

PREFACE vii

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO

M ECH ATRO m CS 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Case Study: Modeling and Control of

Combustion Engines 13

1.2.1 Diesel Engine Components 14

1.2.2 Engine Control System Components

20

1.2.3 Engine Modeling with Lug Curve

22

1.2.4 Engine Control Algorithms: Engine

Speed Regulation Using Fuel Map

and a Proportional Control Algorithm

26

1.3 Problems 26

CHAPTER 2 CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL 29

2.1 Components of a Digital Control System 30

2.2 The Sampling Operation and Signal

Reconstruction 32

2.2.1 Sampling: A7D Operation 32

2.2.2 Sampling Circuit 32

2.2.3 Mathematical Idealization of the

Sampling Circuit 34

2.2.4 Signal Reconstruction; D/A

Operation 39

2.2.5 Real-Time Control update Methods

and Time-Delay 42

2.2.6 Filtering and Bandwidth Issues 44

2.3 Open-Loop Control versus Closed-Loop

Control 46

2.4 Performance Specifications for Control

Systems 49

2.5 Time Domain and S-Domain Correlation of

Signals 51

2.5.1 Selection of Pole Locations 52

2.5.2 Step Response of a Second-Order

Sysiem 52

2.5.3 Standard Filters 56

2.5.4 Steady-State Response 56

2.6 Stability of Dynamic Systems 58

2.6.1 Bounded Input-Bounded Output

Stability 59

2.7 The Root Locus Method 60

2.8 Basic Feedback Control Types 64

2.8.1 Proportional Control 67

2.8.2 Derivative Control 68

2.8.3 Integral Control 69

2.8.4 PI Control 70

2.8.5 PD Control 72

2.8.6 PID Control 73

2.9 Translation o f Analog Control to Digital

Control 74

2.9.1 Finite Difference Approximations

76

2.10 Problems 78

CHAPTER 3 MECHA NỀSMS FOR MOTION

TRANSMISSION 81

3.1 Introduction 81

3.2 Rotary-to-Rolary Motion Transmission

Mechanisms 84

3.2.1 Gears 84

3.2.2 Belt and Pulley 85

3.3 Rotary-lo-Translational Motion Transmission

Mechanisms 87

3.3.1 Lead Screw and Ball Screw

Mechanisms 87

3.3.2 Rack-and-Pinion Mechanism 89

3.3.3 Belt and Pulley 90

3.4 Cyclic Motion Transmission Mechanisms 91

3.4.1 Linkages 91

3.4.2 Cams 92

3.5 Shaft Misalignments and Flexible Couplings

101

3.6 Actuator Sizing 102

3.6.1 Inertia Match Between Motor and

Load 108

3.7 Homogeneous Transformation Matrices 1 10

3.8 Problems 119

CHAPTER 4 MICROCONTROLLERS 123

4.1 Embedded Computers versus Nonembedded

Computers 123

4.1.1 Design Steps of an Embedded

M icrocontroller-Based Mechaironic

System 125

iii

i v CONTENTS

4.1.2 M icroconiroller Development Tools

125

4.1.3 M icrocontroller Development Tools

for PIC 18F452 127

4.2 Basic Com puter Model 129

4.3 M icrocontroller Hardware and Software: PIC

18F452 133

4.3.1 M icrocontroller Hardware 133

4.3.2 M icroprocessor Software 137

4.3.3 I/O Peripherals o f PIC 18F452 139

4.4 Inierrupts 145

4.4.1 General Features of Intem ipts 145

4.4.2 [nlerrupis on PIC 18F452 147

4.5 Problems 152

CHAPTER 5 ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS FOR

MECHATRONIC SYSTEMS 153_________________

5.1 Introduction 153

5.2 Basics of Linear Circuits 153

5.3 Equivalent Electrical Circuit M ethods 156

5.3.1 Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit 157

5.3.2 N orton’s Equivalent Circuit 157

5.4 Impedance 160

5.4.1 Concept of Impedance 160

5.4.2 Amplifier: Gain, Input Impedance,

and Output Impedance 163

5.4.3 Input and Output Loading Errors

164

5.5 Semiconductor Electronic Devices 166

5.5.1 Semiconductor M aterials 166

5.5.2 Diodes 168

5.5.3 Transistors 172

5.6 Operational Amplifiers 183

5.6.1 Basic Op-Amp 184

5.6.2 Common Op-Am p Circuits 188

5.7 Digital Electronic Devices 201

5.7.1 Logic Devices 201

5.7.2 Decoders 202

5.7.3 M ultiplexer 202

5.7.4 Flip-Flops 204

5.8 Digital and Analog I/O and Their Computer

Interface 206

5.9 D/A and A/D Converters and Their Computer

Intert'ace 208

5.10 Problems 214

CHAPTER 6 SENSORS 217

6.1 Iniroduciion 10 M easurement Devices 217

6.2 M easurement Device Loading Errors 220

6.3 W heatstone Bridge Circuit 222

6.3.1 Null M ethod 223

6.3.2 Deflection Method 223

6.4 Position Sensors 225

6.4.1 Poienliometer 225

6.4.2 LVDT, Resolver, and Syncro 227

6.4.3 Encoders 232

6.4.4 Hal! Effect Sensors 237

6.4.5 Capacitive G ap Sensors 238

6.4.6 M agnetoslriclion Position Sensors

239

6.4.7 Sonic Distance Sensors 240

6.4.8 Photoelectric Distance and Presence

Sensors 241

6.4.9 Presence Sensors: O N /O FF Sensors

243

6.5 Velociiy Sensors 245

6.5.1 Tachometers 245

6.5.2 Digital Derivation o f Velocity from

Position Signal 247

6.6 A cceleration Sensors 248

6.6.1 Inertial Accelerom eters 249

6.6.2 Piezoelectric Accelerometers 252

6.6.3 Strain-Gauge-Based Accelerometers

254

6.7 Strain. Force, and Torque Sensors 254

6.7.1 Strain Gauges 254

6.7.2 Force and Torque Sensors 256

6.8 Pressure Sensors 259

6.8.1 Displacement-Based Pressure

Sensors 260

6.8.2 Sirain-Gauge-Based Pressure Sensor

261

6.8.3 Piezoeleciric-Based Pressure Sensor

262

6.8.4 Capacitance-Based Pressure Sensor

262

6.9 Temperature Sensors 263

6.9.1 Temperature Sensors Based on

Dimensional Change 264

6.9.2 Temperature Sensors Based on

Resistance 264

6.9.3 Thermocouples 265

6.10 Row Rate Sensors 267

6.10.1 M echanical Flow Rale Sensors 267

6.10.2 Differential Pressure Flow Rale

Sensors 269

6.10.3 Thermal Flow Rate Sensors: Hot

Wire Anemom eter 271

6.10.4 M ass Flow Rale Sensors; Coriolis

Flow Meters 272

6.11 Humidity Sensors 272

6.12 Vision Systems 273

6.13 Problems 277

CHAPTER 7 ELECTROHYDRA ULIC MOTION

CONTROL SYSTEM S 281

7.1 Introduction 281

7.1.1 Fundamental Physical Principles

294

7.1.2 Analogy Between Hydraulic and

Elecirical Components 296

7.1.3 Energy Loss and Pressure Drop in

Hydraulic Circuits 299

7.2 Hydraulic Pumps 301

7.2.1 Types of Positive Displacement

Pumps 303

7.2.2 Pump Performance 307

7.2.3 Pump Control 313

7.3 Hydraulic Actuators: Hydraulic Cylinder and

Rotary M otor 320

7.4 Hydraulic Valves 324

7.4.1 Pressure Conirol Valves 326

7.4.2 Example: Multifunclion Hydraulic

Circuit with Poppei Valves 330

7.4.3 R ow Control Valves 332

7.4.4 Example: A Multifunction Hydraulic

Circuit Using Posi-Pressure

Compensated Proportional Valves

337

7.4.5 Directional Flow Conlrol Valves:

Proportional and Servo Valves 339

7.4.6 Mounting of Valves in a Hydraulic

Circuit 351

7.4.7 Performance Characteristics of

Proportional and Servo Valves 352

7.5 Sizing o f Hydraulic Motion System

Components 359

7.6 EH Motion Axis Natural Frequency and

Bandwidth Limit 371

7.7 Linear Dynamic Model of a One-Axis

Hydraulic Motion System 373

7.7.1 Position Controlled Elecirohydraulic

Motion Axes 37S

7.7.2 Load Pressure Controlled

Elecirohydraulic Motion Axes 378

7.8 Nonlinear Dynamic Model of a Hydraulic

Motion System 379

7.9 Current Trends in Elecirohydraulics 381

7.10 Case Studies 384

7.10.1 Case Study: Multifunction Hydraulic

Circuit of a Caterpillar Wheel Loader

384

7.11 Problems 388

CHAPTÍR 8 ELECTRIC ACTUATORS: MOTOR

AND DRIVE TECHNOLOGY 393

8.1 Introduction 393

8.1.1 Steady-Stale Torque-Speed Range.

Regeneration, and Power Dumping

395

8.1.2 Electric Fields and Magnetic Fields

399

8.1.3 Permanent Magnetic Materials 412

1.2 Solenoids 423

8.2.1 Operaiing Principles o f Solenoids

423

8.2.2 DC Solenoid: Electromechanical

Dynamic Model 426

ắ.3 DC Servo Motors and Drives 430

8.3.1 Operating Principles o f DC Motors

431

8.3.2 Drives for DC Brush-Type and

Brushless Motors 438

Ỉ.4 AC Induction Motors and Drives 447

8.4.1 AC Induction M otor Operating

Principles 448

8.4.2 Drives for AC Induction Motors 454

Ì.5 Step Motors 461

8.5.1 Basic Stepper M otor Operating

Principles 463

8.5.2 Step M otor Drives 468

Ỉ.6 Switched Reluctance Motors and Drives 471

8.6.1 Switched Reluctance Motors 471

8.6.2 SR M otor Control System

Componenis: Drive 475

Ì.1 Linear Motors 478

?.8 DC Motor: Eleciromechanical Dynamic

Model 481

8.8.1 Voltage Amplifier Driven DC Motor

484

8.8.2 C uưenl Amplifier Driven DC Motor

485

8.8.3 Steady-State Torque-Speed

Characierislics of a DC Motor under

Consiani Terminal Voltage 486

8.8.4 Steady-Staie Torque-Speed

Characierislics of a DC Motor and

Current Amplifier 486

§.9 Energy Losses in Eleciric Motors 488

8.9.1 Resistance Losses 489

8.9.2 Core Losses 490

8.9.3 Friction and Windage Losses 491

MO Problems 491

CHAPTER 9 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC

CONTROLLERS 495_________________________

9.1 Inưoduction 495

9.2 Hardware Components of PLCs 498

9.2.1 PLC CPU, and ƯO Capabilities

498

9.2.2 Opto-lsolated Discrete Input and

Output Modules 502

9.2.3 Relays, Contactors, Starters S03

9.2.4 Counters and Timers 505

9.3 Programming of PLCs 505

9.3.1 Hardwired Seal-ln Circuit 509

9.4 PLC Comrol System Applications 510

v i CONTENTS

9.5 PLC Application Example: Conveyor and

Furnace Control 511

9.6 Problems 514

CHAPTER 10 PROGRAM M ABLE M O TIO N

CONTROL SYSTEM S 515

10.1 Introduction 515

10.2 Design M ethodology for PMC Systems 520

10.3 M otion Controller Hardware and Software

521

10.4 Basic Single-Axis M otions 522

10.5 Coordinated M otion Control M ethods 526

10.5.1 Point-lo-Poinl Synchronized Motion

527 B.5

10.5.2 Electronic G earing Coordinated

M otion 528 B.6

10.5.3 CAM Profile and Contouring B.7

Coordinated M otion 531

10.5.4 Sensor-Based Real-Time Coordinated

Motion 532

10.6 Coordinated Motion A pplications 532

10.6.1 Web Handling with Registration B.8

Mark 532

10.6.2 Web Tension Contral Using

Electronic G earing 535

10.6.3 Smart Conveyors 539

10.7 Problems 544

APPENDIX A TABLES 547

APPENDIX B M ODELING AND SIM ULATION B.9

O F DYNAM IC SYSTEM S 549

B.l M odeling o f Dynamic Systems 549

B.2 Complex Variables 550

B.3 Laplace Transforms 552

B .3.1 Definition o f Laplace Transform

552

B.3.2 Properties o f the Laplace Transform

554

B.3.3 Laplace Transforms o f Some

Common Functions 558

B.3.4 Inverse Laplace Transform: Using

Partial Fraction Expansions 562

B.4 Fourier Series, Fourier Transform s, and

Frequency Response 566

B .4 .1 Basics o f Frequency Response:

M eaning o f Frequency Response

571

B.4.2 Relalionship Between ihe Frequency

Response and Transfer Function

572

B.4.3 S-Domain Inierpreiation o f Frequency

Response 573

B.4.4 Experimental Determ ination o f

Frequency Response 574

B.4.5 G raphical Representation of

Frequency Response 574

Transfer Function and Impulse Response

Relation 574

B.7.1 Definitions 581

B.7.2 System of First-Order O.D.E.S 581

B.7.3 Existence and U niqueness o f the

Solution o f O.D.E.S 582

Linearization 583

B .8 .1 Linearization o f Nonlinear Functions

583

B.8.2 Linearization o f Nonlinear

First-Order Differential Equations

585

B.8.3 Linearization o f M ultidimensional

Nonlinear Differential Equations

o f Dynamic Systems 588

B .9 .1 Numerical Methods for Solving

O.D.E.S 589

B.9.2 Numerical Solution o f O.D.E.S 589

B.9.3 Time Domain Simulation o f Dynamic

Systems 591

B. 10 Details o f the Solution for Example on Page

162: RL and RC Circuits 600

B .ll Problems 604

BIBLIOGRAPHY 607

INDEX 611

PREFACE

This book covers the fundamental scientific principles and technologies that are used in the

desig n o f m od ern co m p u ter-co n tro lled machines an d p ro cesses. Today, the technical b ack ­

g ro u n d n ecessary for an en g in eer to desig n an au to m ated m ach in e, co m p o n en t, o r process

is very different from thal of 30 years ago. The underlying difference is the availability

of embedded computers used to conưol such machines. An automated machine designed

30 years ago would have complicated linkages and cams to define the coordinated motion

relationship between different stations. Today, such relationships are defined in computer

control software. A computer controlled electromechanical system designer not only needs

to know proper mechanical design principles, but also needs to know embedded computer

control hardware and software, sensors in order to measure variables of interest, and actu￾ation technologies.

Many computer-aided design tools in all of these areas (i.e., mechanical design, em￾bedded controller) make it possible for a designer to be knowledgeable in all of these areas

to the extent that he or she can use them effectively in the design. This book should be useful

to senior undergraduate or first-year graduate-level students as well as practicing engineers.

Its purpose is to present all the technical background needed in designing an automated ma￾chine or process. These technical areas cover traditionally different engineering disciplines,

namely mechanical, aerospace, chemical, electrical, and computer engineering. The book

has enough material for two semester courses. If it is used for one semester course only,

it is advised that Chapters 1 through 6 be covered first, then some of the selected chapters

can be covered. Chapters 10 and 11 may be assigned as a self-study or left as a reference

for students. If time permits, these chapters may be used as a basis for comprehensive lab

projects where all aspects of the mechatronics field are brought together in modern design

projects. The reader should be prepared to refer to other good reference books for more

details in each topic covered. Because a large number of topics are covered under the topic

of mechalronies, the depth of coverage had to be limited in one book.

The emphasis is the view of a design engineer: What does one need to know about

a component or subsystem in order to effectively use it in a design? While covering the

fundamental physical principles in each area, we skip historic perspectives and long reviews,

and go straight into the discussion of relevant technology in its current state-of-art form. We

avoid long derivations or proofs. However, proper references are provided where the details

of the derivations and proofs can be found. In this book, we do not try to find all answers to

the questions with equations and num bers. Quite often, we rely on "rule of thumb” design

guides and justify their validity with reasonable physics-based discussions. Good design

requires good understanding of the fundamental principles and good judgment. Examples

throughoul the text and the problem assignments at the end of each chapter are intended to

make the student think of the design issues as opposed to requiring the student to make some

numerical calculations. Therefore, the reader should be prepared to consult other reference

books and especially supplier web pages to find a good solution (among m u ltip le possible

solulions) to a problem.

A t the referen ces sectio n , w e also provide info rm atio n on the m ajor suppliers o f differ￾en t p ro d u cts. A m odern m ech atro n ics en g in eer is a sy stem s integration designer. It is rarely

vii

v i i i PREFACE

the case that all of the system components are designed from scratch for a design project.

Quite often, the designer selects components and subsystems, and then properly designs iheir

custom hardware and software integration. A companion CD is provided which includes

various lab experiments involving microcontroller-based electromechanical design experi￾ments, and some brief review material on Matlab, C /C + + programming language.

The material in this book is a result of the courses I have taught at the University of

Illinois at Chicago over the past five years as well as the experience I gained in work￾ing with various companies over the years in many research and development projects. I

am indebted to many people with whom I have worked and who taught me most of the

material covered here. I have had the good fortune of having worked with many outstand￾ing, bright, talented young students: u, Pinsopon, A. Egeija, M. Cobo, c. Chen, s. Haggag,

G. Larsen, s. Ku, T. Hwang, F. Riordan, D. Norlen, D. Alstrom, J. Woloszko, M. Nakamura,

S. Velamakanni, D. Vecchiato, and M. Bhanabhagvanwala. I also would like to acknowl￾edge the following colleagues who over the years shared their expertise and educated me

in many aspects of the field: R. Ingram, J. Aardema, J. Krone, J. Schimpf, J. Mount,

M. Sorokine, M. Vanderham, s. Kherat, s. Anwar, M. Guven of Caterpillar Inc., D. Wohls￾dorf of Sauer-Danfoss, L. Schrader of Parker, H. Yamamoto of Neomax, D. Hirschberger

of Moog Gmbh, G. Al-ahmad of Hydraforce, w . Fisher of OilGear, M. Brown, p. Eck, T.

Klikuszowian of Abbott Labs, and J. Gamble of Magnet-Schultz, c . Wilson of Delta Tau,

c . Johnson, A. Donmez of National Institute of Standards and Technology, and R. Cesur of

Servo Tech. I would like to thank my editor Joseph Hayton, editorial assistan t Mary Moran,

and senior production editor Sujin Hong at John Wiley & Sons for their patience and kind

guidance throughout the process of writing this book.

The following faculty has reviewed this edition in various stages: Hon Zhang-Rowan

University, Michael Goldfarb-Vanderbuilt University, George Chiu-Purdue University,

Sandford Meek-University of Utah, Ji Wang-San Jose State University, Kazuo Yamazaki￾Universily of California al Davis, and Mark Nagurka-Marquette University.

Sabri Cetinkunt

Chicago, Illinois

November 2005

C H A P T E R ff

INTRODUCTION TO MECHATRONICS

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The mechatronics field consists of the synergistic integration of three distinct traditional

engineering fields for the system level design process. These three fields are:

1. Mechanical engineering, where the word “mecha” is taken from

2. Electrical or electronics engineering, where the part of the word “ironies” is taken

from

3. Computer science

The mechatronics field is not simply the sum of these three major areas, but rather

the field defined as the intersection of these areas when taken in the context of systems

design (Fig. 1.1). It is the current state of evolutionary change of the engineering fields

that deals with the design of controlled electromechanical systems. The word mechatronics

was first coined by engineers at Yaskawa Electric Company [1,2], Virtually every modern

electromechanical system has an embedded computer controller. Therefore, computer hard￾ware and software issues (in terms of their application to the control of electromechanical

systems) are part of the field of mechatronics. Had it not been the widespread availability

of the low-cost microcontrollers for the mass market, the field of mechatronics as we know

it today would not have existed [2a]. The availability of embedded microprocessors for the

mass market at an ever-reducing cost and increasing performance makes possible the use

of computer control in thousands of consumer products.

The old model for an electromechanical product design team includes:

1. Engineer(s) who designs the mechanical components of a product

2. Engineer(s) who designs the electrical components such as actuators, sensors, and

amplifiers, as well as design the control logic and algorithms

3. Engineer(s) who designs the computer hardware and software implementation 10

control the product in real time

A m ech atro n ies en g in eer is trained 10 do all o f th ese th ree functions. In ad d itio n , the

desig n p ro cess is not seq u en tial from m echanical d esig n , fo llo w ed by electrical an d co m ­

pu ter co n tro l system d esig n s, but rath er all asp ects (m ech an ical, electrical, and co m p u ter

control) of design are done simuUanenously for optimal product design. Clearly, mecha￾tronics is nol a new engineering discipline, but is rather the current state of ihe evolutionary

process of engineering disciplines needed in design of electromechanical systems. The

end product of a mechalronics engineer’s work is a working prototype of an embedded

compuler-controlled electromechanical device or system. This book covers the fundamen￾tal leehnical topics needed to enable an engineer to accomplish such designs. We define

Ihe word device as a stand-alone product that serves a function such as a microwave oven.