Maritime power and the law of the sea

maritime power and the law of

the sea

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maritime power and the law of

the sea

expeditionary operations in

world politics

james kraska

1

1

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Kraska, James

Maritime power and the law of the sea : expeditionary operations in

world politics / James Kraska

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-19-977338-1 ((hardback) : alk. paper)

1. Economic zones (Law of the sea) 2. Law of the sea. 3. Territorial waters. I. Title

KZA1560.K73 2011

341.4’48—dc22 2010031254

_____________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

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To my mother, Dr. Marie Kraska Miller

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Neither nature nor art has partitioned the sea into empires.

The ocean and its treasures are the common property of all men.

Upon this deep and strong foundation do I build, and with this cogent and irresistible

argument do I fortify our rights & liberties.

—President John Adams, 1735-1826

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contents

Figures xii

Tables xiii

Foreword xv

Acknowledgments xvii

chapter 1 . diminishing freedom in littoral seas 1

1. Approaches to Analyzing Excessive Maritime Claims 13

2. Political Economy of Excessive Maritime Claims 22

chapter 2 . expeditionary naval force in history 29

1. Sea Power in the Ancient World 33

2. From Oar to Transcontinental Sail—Portugal, Spain & the

Dutch Republic 38

3. Anglo-American Expeditionary Naval Power 50

chapter 3 . the regimes of the law of the sea 95

1. Baselines 109

2. Internal Waters 114

3. Territorial Sea & Contiguous Zone 114

4. International Straits 123

5. Archipelagic Waters 132

6. The Exclusive Economic Zone 134

7. The Regimes and National Security 150

chapter 4 . littoral seas—epicenter of world politics 157

1. Great Power Trends and the Liberal Order of the Oceans 159

2. Expeditionary Sea Power 179

3. The Increasing Reach of the Coastal State 211

x contents

chapter 5 . naval force in the exclusive economic zone 221

1. From High Seas to Sui Generis —the Odyssey of the EEZ 232

2. Warship Sovereign Immunity in the EEZ 247

3. “Peaceful Purposes” 253

4. Dueling “Due Regards” 261

5. “Other Internationally Lawful Uses of the Sea . . .” 269

6. Military Surveys 270

7. Residual Rights 277

8. Emplacement of Foreign Military Devices in the EEZ 279

9. Declarations and Understandings 284

chapter 6 . sovereignty and security claims over the exclusive

economic zone 291

1. “Antarctic EEZ”—Australia’s Claim 292

2. Southeast Asia—Burma and the Gulf of Martaban 294

3. North America—The Canadian Arctic 295

4. South America—Chile, Ecuador, and Peru 299

5. The European Union—Fortress Europe 304

6. South America—Brazil 305

7. South Asia: Iran, Pakistan, India, and Maldives 308

8. East Asia—Malaysia, Vietnam, and the Special Case of

China 312

chapter 7 . environmental claims over the exclusive

economic zone 331

1. Vessel-Source Pollution and Freedom of the Seas 334

2. Marine Sanctuaries and Freedom of the Seas 356

chapter 8 . promoting access to the exclusive

economic zone 379

1. Fear and Loathing in the Post-Naval Era? 381

2. Reinvigorating the Freedom of Navigation Program 397

contents xi

3. Reforming the U.S. Interagency Oceans Policy Process 403

4. Transforming Oceans Diplomacy—Addressing the Collective

Action Problem 413

annex I. united states freedom of navigation operations

1994–2008 431

index 443

figures

Figure 1: EEZs of the World 5

Figure 2: Treaty of Tordesillas—Spain and Portugal Divide the Oceans 41

Figure 3: Anachronous Map of the Portuguese Empire 43

Figure 4: Anachronous Map of the Spanish Empire 44

Figure 5: Map of the Iberian Union 1580–1640 45

Figure 6: Anachronous Map of the Dutch Empire 49

Figure 7: Anachronous Map of the British Empire 53

Figure 8: Deep Strike in Operational Maneuver from the Sea 201

Figure 9: Sea Basing—the Overarching View 202

Figure 10: Anticipated Marine Corps Operating Areas 2025 206

Figure 11: China’s Straight Baseline System 315

Figure 12: The Cow Tongue—China Claims the South China Sea 317

Figure 13: Defense In Depth: China’s First and Second Island Chains 324

Figure 14: The World’s 66 Large Marine Ecosystems—Co-terminus with

EEZs 359

Figure 15: China is Completely Zone-Locked by Neighboring EEZs 428

tables

Table 1: World’s Largest EEZs 14

Table 2: Foreign Warships in the Territorial Sea 115

Table 3: Breadth of Key Strategic Straits 125

Table 4: Coastal State Rights and Duties in the EEZ 135

Table 5: The Size of EEZs of Selected States 141

Table 6: Heavy Lift—Sustainment for Marine Air-Ground Task Forces

(MAGTFs) 199

Table 7: Notional Marine Expeditionary Brigade (MEB) 205

Table 8: The 17 delegations of the Castañeda Group 239

Table 9: Flag State Sovereign Immunity—U.S. Naval Vessels 246

Table 10: Sovereignty Claims in the EEZ 293

Table 11: National Security Claims in the EEZ 303

Table 12: Excessive Environmental Claims in the EEZ 332

Table 13: Freedom of Navigation Operations, Fiscal Year 2008 431

Table 14: Freedom of Navigation Operations, Fiscal Year 2007 432

Table 15: Freedom of Navigation Operations, Fiscal Year 2006 432

Table 16: Freedom of Navigation Operations, Fiscal Year 2005 433

Table 17: Freedom of Navigation Operations, Fiscal Year 2004 433

Table 18: Freedom of Navigation Operations, Fiscal Year 2001–2003 434

Table 19: Freedom of Navigation Operations, Fiscal Year 2000 435

Table 20: Freedom of Navigation Operations, Fiscal Year 1999 436

Table 21: Freedom of Navigation Operations, Fiscal Year 1998 437

Table 22: Freedom of Navigation Operations, Fiscal Year 1997 438

Table 23: Freedom of Navigation Operations, Fiscal Year 1996 439

Table 24: Freedom of Navigation Operations, Fiscal Year 1995 440

Table 25: Freedom of Navigation Operations, Fiscal Year 1994 441

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