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Major Soil Groups of the World: Ecology, Genesis, Properties and Classification
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Jean-Paul Legros
Translated from French by
V.A.K. Sarma
Major Soil Groups
of the World
Ecology, Genesis, Properties
and Classification
Major Soil Groups of the World Jean-Paul Legros
About the Book
Soils of the world exhibit considerable diversity both in their features,
properties and in their ages and genetic conditions. Thorough knowledge of
these characteristics is indispensable for the study, utilization and
conservation of the natural environment. This profusely illustrated book
gives an exhaustive account of the principal types of soils of our planet. The
“progressive descent of weathering fronts” model, recognized and used by
eminent international scientists is the guiding principle of choice to link the
observations and to give the reader a synthetic and coherent view of the
differentiation of soils. In each case, the introductory reminders summarize
the physicochemical and mineralogical principles necessary for
understanding the text. The nomenclatures rely systematically and
simultaneously on the two most commonly used classifications: Soil
Taxonomy and World Reference Base. This reference manual is particularly
directed at students of the Bachelor's and Master's degree courses, but is
also intended for workers and scientists in this subject area (geologists,
pedologists, agronomists, land-use planners, foresters, etc.) as well as for all
those concerned with or interested in protection of the environment.
Jean-Paul Legros is an agricultural scientist and has a Doctorate in Science.
He has spent almost his entire career in the Institut National de la Recherche
Agronomique (INRA) at Montpellier (France). He has also taught for a
dozen years as an Invited Professor at the École Polytechnique Fédérale de
Lausanne. He has been President of the Association Française pour l'Étude
du Sol (2009-2010), and President of the Académie des Sciences et Lettres of
Montpellier (2008). He wrote the book Mapping of the Soil, also from the same
publisher.
V.A.K. Sarma retired in 1994 as Principal Scientist (Pedology) from the
National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning, an institute of the
Indian Council of Agricultural Research. He had earlier worked on the
faculties of the Indian Agricultural Institute at New Delhi, Punjab
Agricultural University in Ludhiana, and Government Agricultural
College, Thiruvananthapuram, India.
K16058
Jean-Paul Legros
Translated from French by
V.A.K. Sarma
Major Soil Groups
of the World
Ecology, Genesis, Properties
and Classification
Major Soil Groups of the World Jean-Paul Legros
About the Book
Soils of the world exhibit considerable diversity both in their features,
properties and in their ages and genetic conditions. Thorough knowledge of
these characteristics is indispensable for the study, utilization and
conservation of the natural environment. This profusely illustrated book
gives an exhaustive account of the principal types of soils of our planet. The
“progressive descent of weathering fronts” model, recognized and used by
eminent international scientists is the guiding principle of choice to link the
observations and to give the reader a synthetic and coherent view of the
differentiation of soils. In each case, the introductory reminders summarize
the physicochemical and mineralogical principles necessary for
understanding the text. The nomenclatures rely systematically and
simultaneously on the two most commonly used classifications: Soil
Taxonomy and World Reference Base. This reference manual is particularly
directed at students of the Bachelor's and Master's degree courses, but is
also intended for workers and scientists in this subject area (geologists,
pedologists, agronomists, land-use planners, foresters, etc.) as well as for all
those concerned with or interested in protection of the environment.
Jean-Paul Legros is an agricultural scientist and has a Doctorate in Science.
He has spent almost his entire career in the Institut National de la Recherche
Agronomique (INRA) at Montpellier (France). He has also taught for a
dozen years as an Invited Professor at the École Polytechnique Fédérale de
Lausanne. He has been President of the Association Française pour l'Étude
du Sol (2009-2010), and President of the Académie des Sciences et Lettres of
Montpellier (2008). He wrote the book Mapping of the Soil, also from the same
publisher.
V.A.K. Sarma retired in 1994 as Principal Scientist (Pedology) from the
National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning, an institute of the
Indian Council of Agricultural Research. He had earlier worked on the
faculties of the Indian Agricultural Institute at New Delhi, Punjab
Agricultural University in Ludhiana, and Government Agricultural
College, Thiruvananthapuram, India.
Jean-Paul Legros
Translated from French by
V.A.K. Sarma
Major Soil Groups
of the World
Ecology, Genesis, Properties
and Classification
Major Soil Groups of the World Jean-Paul Legros
About the Book
Soils of the world exhibit considerable diversity both in their features,
properties and in their ages and genetic conditions. Thorough knowledge of
these characteristics is indispensable for the study, utilization and
conservation of the natural environment. This profusely illustrated book
gives an exhaustive account of the principal types of soils of our planet. The
“progressive descent of weathering fronts” model, recognized and used by
eminent international scientists is the guiding principle of choice to link the
observations and to give the reader a synthetic and coherent view of the
differentiation of soils. In each case, the introductory reminders summarize
the physicochemical and mineralogical principles necessary for
understanding the text. The nomenclatures rely systematically and
simultaneously on the two most commonly used classifications: Soil
Taxonomy and World Reference Base. This reference manual is particularly
directed at students of the Bachelor's and Master's degree courses, but is
also intended for workers and scientists in this subject area (geologists,
pedologists, agronomists, land-use planners, foresters, etc.) as well as for all
those concerned with or interested in protection of the environment.
Jean-Paul Legros is an agricultural scientist and has a Doctorate in Science.
He has spent almost his entire career in the Institut National de la Recherche
Agronomique (INRA) at Montpellier (France). He has also taught for a
dozen years as an Invited Professor at the École Polytechnique Fédérale de
Lausanne. He has been President of the Association Française pour l'Étude
du Sol (2009-2010), and President of the Académie des Sciences et Lettres of
Montpellier (2008). He wrote the book Mapping of the Soil, also from the same
publisher.
V.A.K. Sarma retired in 1994 as Principal Scientist (Pedology) from the
National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning, an institute of the
Indian Council of Agricultural Research. He had earlier worked on the
faculties of the Indian Agricultural Institute at New Delhi, Punjab
Agricultural University in Ludhiana, and Government Agricultural
College, Thiruvananthapuram, India.
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A Science Publishers Book
Major Soil Groups
of the World
Ecology, Genesis, Properties and Classification
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Major Soil Groups
of the World
Ecology, Genesis, Properties and Classification
Jean-Paul Legros
Directeur de Recherche (h)
Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA)
Montpellier, France
Translated from the French by
V.A.K. Sarma
A SCIENCE PUBLISHERS BOOK
p,
GL--Prelims with new title page.indd ii 4/25/2012 9:52:40 AM
CRC Press
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Epigraph
‘Rhazes said, in his book The Physics of
Auscultation, that with time rock changes to clay
according to the action of the sun and of rain’.
In: The Book of Agriculture by IBN-AL-AWAN, Arab
author who lived in Seville in the 12th century, citing
Rhazes, Arab physician of the 10th century
[(from the French translation of
J.J. Clément-Mullet (1864)].
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Introduction
Objectives
The objectives of this book are the following:
• to explain the mechanisms of formation of the soils seen on our
Planet;
• for this, to present a unifying viewpoint: the weathering-front
model. This approach is introduced in Chapter 3; it is developed
later in the various chapters of the second part, except in the very
last that it does not pertain to;
• to extend the idea to our understanding of nature; we profit
from the study of certain mechanisms for explaining what every
inquisitive naturalist can observe while strolling and travelling;
for example, the appearance of karsts, the phenomenon of willo’-the-wisp, the red tropical landscapes, etc. Soil Science is one
of the gateways to understand better and love our Earth.
Readership
This book is addressed to students who have soil science courses in their
studies, to geographers and geologists, to agronomists and, lastly, to
lovers of nature who wish to know it better. The essential prerequisites
are limited to some elementary concepts in chemistry.
Pedagogic aspects
This book provides a foundation. When one has read it, the vocabulary and concepts being included, one should find it easy to tackle all
scientific publications, even specialized and difficult, covering the same
subjects.
It starts out with discussion of the very mature soils that required
millions of years to form and ends with the soils affected by processes
that have to be studied on the scale of a month or even a minute. Thus
there is a progressive slide from pedogenesis to dynamics. Descent of
weathering fronts explains the general differentiation of soils but does
viii Introduction
not concern present-day dynamics, for example the rapid movements of
oxygen or of salts. Thus, the unifying view is no longer mentioned in
Chapters 12 and 13. But we revisit it in the conclusion because it is central
to the concepts that underpin this book. The order of presentation is also
chosen to enable the reader to easily acquire, one by one, the ideas the
totality of which is necessary for understanding a chapter further along
in the text. Beyond that, the chapters are largely independent. Where
required, cross-references are made.
The content is centered on a dozen major soil groups. This is not
exhaustive but will suffice to explain the main principles. We have
wanted to avoid a heavy and useless ‘catalogue’.
In the matter of classification, the terminology of the World Reference
Base (WRB) that is accepted in a large part of the world serves as our
language. But the terms in Soil Taxonomy are also provided. To make
easy the decoding of the latter we have systematically split the terms
into the formative elements. For example, we write Verm-ust-oll instead
of Vermustoll (Chernozem). However, in this book, typology is simplified
and indicative. It gives only the paths for later tackling the manuals
devoted to these questions. Moreover, if knowing how to name a thing
is relevant, understanding its dynamics and functions is otherwise
exciting…
We have distinguished what has been agreed to by all from what
is poorly understood or still debatable. Pedology is a living science. Its
difficulties are not hidden.
Point of view and limitations
In this book, all that touches on humus, biology and organic matter
has been kept to the minimum. They are treated specially when it
is essential to do so, as in the case of Andosols, Podzols and soils
saturated with water. Our point of view, therefore, is partial but not
biased. When an infant takes its first steps, the psychologist says ‘He
has succeeded in learning that one can live outside his mother’s skirts’, the
physician indicates ‘He now has the mechanical means of fighting against
gravity’ and the neurologist adds ‘Coordination of movement is henceforth
established’. All of them are right. Fortunately, there is no single point of
view for admiring the Earth and its major soils.
Unless otherwise mentioned, the soils studied here are found where
there have been no disruption such as colluviation, aeolian deposition,
lateral slippage, truncation by erosion, etc. In other words, we examine
the broad mechanisms but not the infinite variety of cases in which
they weaken, particularly on slopes.
Introduction ix
Typical plan of a chapter
The following sections are always presented in a highly structured
manner:
• prerequisites (e.g., concept of amorphous material in the case of
Andosols);
• distinctive characteristics of the soil under study;
• ecology and distribution in the world;
• genesis and dynamics, age;
• paths for an agronomic approach.
But the sequence of sections varies slightly from one chapter to
another according to pedagogic imperatives.
Acknowledgements
It is easier to accomplish a synthesis sitting at a comfortable desk than
facing mosquitoes in Amazonia, the heat in the fringes of the Sahara
or the storms in the mountains if it is required to take hydraulic
measurements when water is flowing. Thanks, therefore, firstly to the
field workers whose work I have used. Thanks also to Patrick Herrmann,
who gave me, for many years, the opportunity to teach pedogenesis
within the framework of Montpellier SupAgro. I am grateful to all
the scientists who consented to proofread the chapters according their
specialization: Messrs R. Bertrand, L. Bock, M. Bornand, G. Bourrié,
K. Djili, J-C. Favrot, F. Feder, P. Herrmann, S. Marlet, P. Quantin,
P. Ross, J.P. Rossignol, D. Schwartz and, very specially, J-P. Party who
reread the entire book. Thanks to the publishers who believed in me as
much for the French version (PPUR) as for the English version (Science
Publishers). I am particularly thankful to the INRA (Institut National de
Recherche Agronomique), where I spent my whole career, for providing
the necessary facilities so that the updating of the French version of
this book could be carried out in a good scientific environment. And
many thanks to V.A.K. Sarma who translated the text into English with
great care not only with regard to style but also to the content, as he
is a soil scientist himself. The exchanges with him were very pleasant.
I am grateful to my wife, children and grandchildren, who picked up
the habit of supporting me whether present or absent, mind elsewhere,
roaming the Earth, keeping fingers poised over a computer keyboard…
Thanks to my father whom I neglected too much during all these years
devoted to synthesis and writing.
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Contents
Introduction vii-ix
1. Definitions, Concepts and Tools 1
1.1 Basic Concepts 1
1.2 Methods for Study of Pedogenesis 5
1.3 Dating and Tracing 15
2. Factors of Pedogenesis 25
2.1 Climate 25
2.2 Rocks 29
2.3 Time and Age of Soils 36
2.4 Geomorphology and Surface Formations 43
2.5 Vegetation and Humus 55
2.6 Soil Fauna and Microorganisms 68
2.7 Man 69
3. Progressive Descent of Weathering Fronts, 76
other Pedogenetic Mechanisms and Spatial
Organization of Soils
3.1 Vertical Differentiation of Soils 76
3.2 Mechanisms of Evolution of Soils 84
3.3 Mineralogical Evolution of Clays 90
3.4 Attempt at Modelling 99
3.5 Organization of Soils at all Scales 105
4. Classifications: International WRB and U.S. 115
Soil Taxonomy
4.1 Historical Review 115
4.2 World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB) 118
4.3 The American Classification 129
5. Ferralsols and other Soils of the Hot Regions 147
5.1 Generalities 147
xii Contents
5.2 Typical Profile and Differentiation 150
5.3 Duration of Pedogenesis 159
5.4 Ecology and Classification 162
5.5 Evolution of Ferrallitic Environments 169
5.6 Land Use 172
6. Vertisols 180
6.1 Typical Profile and Differentiation 180
6.2 Ecology and Typology 186
6.3 Functioning 188
6.4 Genesis 192
6.5 Classification 194
6.6 Evolution/Degradation of Vertisols 195
6.7 Return to the Weathering-front Model 199
6.8 Utilization of Vertisols 200
7. Calcisols and other Soils on Carbonate-Bearing 206
and Sulphate-Bearing Materials
7.1 Generalities 206
7.2 Distribution of Calcareous and Ca-saturated Soils 208
7.3 Decarbonatation Phenomena 213
7.4 Accumulation Phenomena 222
7.5 Typology and Classification 229
7.6 Utilization of Calcareous Soils 232
8. Cambisols, Luvisols and Planosols 238
8.1 Fundamental Mechanisms of Development 238
8.2 Development of the Profiles 244
8.3 Typology and Classification 251
8.4 Ecology and Duration of Pedogenesis 254
8.5 Conservation and Utilization 258
9. Red Soils of the Mediterranean and Dry Tropical 265
Zones
9.1 Soil Sequences in the Rhône Valley 265
9.2 Ecology of the Red Soils 277
9.3 Classification and Typology 281
9.4 Utilization of the Soils 283
Contents xiii
10. Andosols 291
10.1 Principal Features and Ecology 291
10.2 The ‘Amorphous Materials’ in Andosols 293
10.3 Genesis of Andosols 302
10.4 Properties of Andosols 307
10.5 Typology and Classification 312
10.6 Protection and Utilization 315
11. Podzolic Soils 323
11.1 Morphology and Properties of Podzolic Soils 323
11.2 Ecology 330
11.3 Genesis of Podzols 333
11.4 Typology and Classification 347
11.5 Utilization of Podzolic Soils 352
12. Gleysols, Stagnosols and Histosols 363
12.1 Oxidation-reduction Phenomena 363
12.2 Dynamics of Iron in Presence of Excess Water 370
12.3 Evolution of Organic Matter when Excess Water 375
is present
12.4 Gleysols and Stagnosols 381
12.5 Marshes and Peatlands 385
12.6 Mangrove Swamps 395
12.7 Rice Paddies 402
13. Saline Soils: Solonchaks and Solonetz 409
13.1 Expression of Salinity 409
13.2 Origin of Soil Salinity 415
13.3 Properties of Saline Soils 417
13.4 Dynamics of Salts 420
13.5 Evolution and Typology of Saline Soils 430
13.6 Elements of Land Reclamation 435
Appendix: Brief Glossary for Saline Soils 442
14. Chernozems; General Conclusions 448
14.1 The Chernozem 448
Index 455
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