James g speight environmental management of energy from biofuels and biofeedstocks

Environmental Management of Energy

from Biofuels and Biofeedstocks

Scrivener Publishing

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Publishers at Scrivener

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Phillip Carmical ([email protected])

Environmental

Management of Energy

from Biofuels and

Biofeedstocks

James G. Speight and Kamel Singh

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Cover design by Kris Hackerott

Library of Congr ess Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

ISBN 978-1-118-23371-9

Printed in the United States of America

10 987654321

v

Contents

Preface ix

1 Fuels From Biomass 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Th e Growth of Biofuels 3

1.2.1 Factors Spurring Growth in the Biofuels Market 4

1.2.2 Challenges to the Wide-Scale Use Of Biofuels 6

1.2.3 History of Biofuels Programs 7

1.2.4 Current Biofuel Production 8

1.3 Conventional Biomass Feedstocks 13

1.3.1 Fuels from Food Fiber and Feed Crops

(1st Generation) 13

1.4 Challenges to Conventional Feedstocks 22

1.5 Fuels from Crop Residues, Wood and Dedicated

Energy Crops 23

1.5.1 Characteristics of Cellulosic Biomass 24

1.5.2 Biomass Residues and Organic Wastes 26

1.5.3 Wood Residues 27

1.5.4 Crop Residues 28

1.5.5 Energy Crops 30

1.5.6 Micro-Algae 31

1.6 Technologies for Converting Biomass into

Liquid Fuels 33

1.6.1 Th ermochemical Conversion 33

1.6.2 Biochemical Conversion 35

1.6.3 Emerging Developments in Conversion Technology 36

1.7 Th e Biorefi nery Concept 38

vi Contents

1.8 Outlook for Cellulosic Liquid Fuels 42

1.9 Biofuels 43

1.9.1 Ethanol from Sugars 43

1.9.2 Ethanol from Starches 44

1.9.3 Fuel Ethanol 44

1.9.4 Lipid-Derived Biofuels 46

References 48

2 Environmental Aspects 53

2.1 Introduction 53

2.2 Greenhouse Gas Emissions 57

2.3 Life Cycle Considerations of Biofuels 59

2.3.1 Feedstock Production, Harvest, Processing,

Transport 61

2.4 Refi ning Feedstocks Into Biofuels 68

2.4.1 Transport of Feedstocks and Fuel 70

2.4.2 Combustion 71

2.4.3 Results of Well-to-Wheel Analyses 73

2.4.4 Reducing the Climate Impact of Biofuels 74

2.5 Impact of Growing Biomass 77

2.5.1 Habitat Destruction 78

2.5.2 Minimizing Land-Use and Impact on Wildlife 81

2.5.3 Impact on Soil Quality 83

2.5.4 Impact on Water Resources 85

2.5.5 Impact on Air Quality 86

References 87

3 Biofuel Policies 93

3.1 Introduction 93

3.2 Regional, National and Local Policies 96

3.2.1 Africa 97

3.2.2 Asia and the Pacifi c 99

3.2.3 Latin America 102

3.2.4 Europe 105

3.2.5 North America 106

3.3 International Environmental Instruments 108

3.3.1 Greenhouse Gas Emissions 109

3.3.2 Other Emissions 110

Contents vii

3.4 Standards and Certifi cation Schemes 111

3.5 International Trade 115

References 121

4 Th e Biofuel Life Cycle 125

4.1 Introduction 125

4.2 Energy Balance and Energy Effi ciency of Biofuels 126

4.3 Ethanol in SI Engines 132

4.4 Ethanol in CI Engines 134

4.5 Biodiesel Blends 136

4.6 Unblended Biodiesel 138

4.7 Other Biofuels 140

4.7.1 Vegetable Oil and Animal Fats 141

4.7.2 Dimethyl Ether 143

4.7.3 Biomass to Liquid 144

References 149

5 Social Aspects 153

5.1 Introduction 153

5.2 Agricultural and Rural Development 157

5.3 Expanding Markets 159

5.4 Creating Employment 163

5.5 Subsidies 166

5.6 Biofuel Processing 167

5.7 Biofuels for Local Use 169

5.8 Food Versus Fuel Debate 170

5.9 Infrastructure Requirements 174

5.10 Transport, Storage and Delivery 175

5.11 Government Policies and Regulations 178

References 182

6 Th e Future of Biofuels 187

6.1 Introduction 187

6.2 Next Generation Biofuels 191

6.3 Integrated Refi ning Concepts – Th e Biorefi nery 194

6.3.1 Th e Biorefi nery Concept 196

6.3.2 Process Options 197

6.3.3 Anaerobic Digestion 201

viii Contents

6.3.4 Fermentation and Hydrolysis 202

6.3.5 Transesterifi cation 203

6.4 Strategies for Biofuel Use 204

6.5 Market Barriers of Biofuel 205

6.6 Managing Biofuel Production 207

6.6.1 Food or Fuel 208

6.6.2 Non-Food Feedstocks 209

6.6.3 Vegetable Oil 210

6.7 Th e Future 210

References 215

Conversion Factors 219

Glossary 221

Index 251

ix

Preface

Biomass is a renewable resource, whose utilization has received great atten￾tion due to environmental considerations and the increasing demand for

energy worldwide. Since the energy crises of the 1970s, many countries

have become interested in biomass as a fuel source to expand the develop￾ment of domestic and renewable energy sources, reduce the environmental

impact of energy production, provide rural prosperity for its poor farmers

and bolster a fl at agricultural sector. Biomass energy (bioenergy) can be an

important alternative in the future and a more sustainable energy. In fact,

for large portions of the rural population of developing countries, and for

the poorest section of urban populations, biomass is oft en the only avail￾able and aff ordable source of energy for satisfying basic needs as cooking

and heating.

However, for a given feedstock, management includes several important

issues that require attention: (1) sustainability, choice of feedstocks and

markets (2) chemical composition of the biomass, conversion processes and

technologies (3) availability of land and land use, and the earth’s resources

(4) the various environmental issues that accompany biomass cultivation

and use (5) rural development, prosperity, employment for the poor and

landless (6) biofuel life cycle (energy balance and energy effi ciency, GHG

(greenhouse gas) emissions) (7) policies, subsidies and (8) future for bio￾fuels etc. Indeed, while many observers claim that biofuel production and

use are an environmental benefi t, this is not the case. Indeed, 1st genera￾tion biofuels have a multiplicity of ethical, political, social, economic and

environmental concerns and are viewed as competing for agricultural pro￾duction destined for food, feed, fi bre and fertilizer. Th e main concerns are

that production of 1st generation biofuels competes with food for feedstock

and fertile land, potential availability is limited by soil fertility and per

hectare yields (1 hectare = 2.47 acres) and that eff ective savings of carbon

dioxide emissions and fossil energy consumption are limited by the high

x Preface

energy input required for crop cultivation and conversion. Liquid biofuels

made from sugar, starch and plant oils still represent the only large near￾term substitute for petro-fuels and may off er some reprieve to countries

grappling with rising oil prices, increasing national and global insecurity,

climate instability and local as well as global pollution levels. Th e debate

continues as to the eff ectiveness of biofuels in addressing such pressing

problems.

Th e environmental risks associated with growing biomass for fuel

production such as loss of wild habitat, loss of biodiversity and negative

impacts on soil, air and water make the case for carefully managing biofuel

production processes to minimize ecological impact. New energy crops,

improved management practices (methods of cultivation and harvest),

alternative farming methods (reduced soil erosion, improved soil qual￾ity, reduced water consumption, reduced susceptibility to pests and dis￾eases (minimize usage of herbicides and pesticides) will critically engage

the attention of the scientifi c community, governments and planners.

Implementing policies and instruments (certifi cations and standards) for

a sustainable biofuel market and the considerations for international trade

must also be critically examined so all stakeholders are treated equitably

and emerging producers have a say in the global debate.

Th e importance of the biofuel life cycle in terms of energy and fuel

characteristics for some of the more commercially available biofuels such

as ethanol, biodiesel, straight vegetable oils, animal fats, dimethyl ether

(DME) and biomass to liquids (BtL), in addition to attributes as energy

effi ciency, engine and vehicle eff ects, and fuel consumption, must feature

prominently in any discussion regarding a suitable substitute for petro￾fuels and reducing greenhouse gases.

Th e social aspects of the management of biofuels (development of agri￾culture and rural areas as instruments for expanding markets and creat￾ing employment), the role of producing value-added products, the use

of subsidies in the development of a biofuel economy and challenges as

supplementing typically imported fuels, fuel vs. food debate, logistical

concerns related to infrastructure, transport and delivery, and policies and

regulations must also be critically engaged by stakeholders as the industry

matures. Discussion must also include next generation biofuels, advances

in the biorefi nery concept, new vehicle technologies, market barriers and

upcoming biofuel competitors to round out such a diverse topic.

Th us, the focus of the book is to present a historical overview, country

perspectives, a description of the use of biomass to produce biofuels, the

current and upcoming sources of biofuels, technologies and processes for

Preface xi

biofuel production, the various types of biofuels and, specifi cally, the ways

and means to make biofuel production sustainable, economically feasible,

minimize environmental damage and to deliver on its many promises. A

large task for any alternative fuel in the early stages of its development.

Greater public and private sector initiatives will be required to make biofu￾els mainstream and a credible alternative to petro-fuels.

James G. Speight, PhD, DSc, PhD

Laramie, Wyoming, USA

Kamel Singh BSc, MSc

St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago

September 2013.

1

1.1 Introduction

Biomass is a renewable resource, whose utilization has received great atten￾tion due to environmental considerations and the increasing demands of

energy worldwide. Since the energy crises of the 1970s, many countries

have become interested in biomass as a fuel source to expand the develop￾ment of domestic and renewable energy sources and reduce the environ￾mental impacts of energy production (Seifried and Witzel, 2010). Biomass

energy (bioenergy) can be an important alternative in the future as a more

sustainable energy supply. Currently, it accounts for 35% of primary energy

consumption in developing countries, raising the world total to 14% of

primary energy consumption from bioenergy (Demirbas¸, 2006; Ericsson

and Nilsson, 2006; Speight, 2008; Nersesian, 2010; Speight, 2011a). It is

the main energy source in a number of countries and regions (Hoogwijk

et al., 2005). In fact, for large portions of the rural populations of develop￾ing countries, and for the poorest sections of urban populations, biomass

is oft en the only available and aff ordable source of energy for basic needs

such as cooking and heating (Demirbas¸, 2006).

1

Fuels From Biomass

2 Environmental Management of Energy

Biomass has the largest potential and is considered the best option to

insure fuel supply in the future (Speight, 2008; Balat, 2011). As 90% of the

world’s population is expected to reside in developing countries by 2050,

biomass energy is predicted to be a substantial energy feedstock and vari￾ous energy scenarios suggest potential market shares of modern biomass

of approximately 10% to 50% till the year 2050 (Hoogwijk et al., 2005).

Biomass, mainly in the form of wood, is the oldest form of energy used

by humans. Traditionally, biomass has been utilized through direct com￾bustion, and this process is still widely used in many parts of the develop￾ing world. In industrialized countries, the main biomass processes used in

the future are expected to be powered by direct combustion of residues and

wastes for electricity generation, bio-ethanol and biodiesel as liquid fuels,

and combined heat and power production from energy crops (UNCTAD,

2008; NREL, 2009; Balat, 2011; Lee and Shah, 2013).

Th e most important biomass energy sources are wood and wood wastes,

agricultural crops and their waste byproducts, municipal solid waste (MSW),

animal wastes, waste from food processing, and aquatic plants and algae. Th e

majority of biomass energy is produced from wood and wood wastes (64%),

followed by MSW (24%), agricultural waste (5%), and landfi ll gases (5%)

(Demirbas¸, 2001).

Th us, energy management is not only related to resource manage￾ment and economics but also to the environment and the ecology. With

the depletion of fossil fuels, a gradual shift to renewable energy sources

including biofuels is inevitable, but it is a matter of the timing of the shift

and the preparation time before the shift (Speight, 2011b). However, exten￾sive research and development eff orts are required to make the renewable

energy sources cost-eff ective, aff ordable and sustainable (Speight, 2011a).

Coprocessing of petroleum residues, coal, biomass, and wastes (Speight,

2011a, 2011b, 2013a, 2013b, 2014) may generate cleaner fuels in the transi￾tion period from conventional to biofuels, which may extend the life span

of petroleum use (Bower, 2009; Speight, 2011b).

However, for a given feedstock, the management of feedstocks includes

several issues that require attention: (1) chemical composition of the

biomass, (2) cultivation practices, (3) availability of land and land use

practices, (4) use of resources, (5) energy balance, (6) emission of green￾house gases, acidifying gases and ozone depletion gases, (7) absorption

of minerals to water and soil, (8) injection of pesticides, (9) soil erosion,

(10) contribution to biodiversity and landscape value losses, (11) farm￾gate price of the biomass, (12) the cost of logistics (transport and stor￾age of the biomass), (13) direct economic value of the feedstocks taking

into account the co-products, (14) creation or maintain of employment,