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Ionizing Radiation Detectors for Medical Imaging doc
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Ionizing Radiation
Detectors for
Medical Imaging
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1: World Scientific
NEW JERSEY - LONDON SINGAPORE - SHANGHAI - H O N G K O N G * TAIPEI - CHENNAI
Published by
World Scientific Publishing Co. Re. Ltd.
5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224
USA ofice: 27 Warren Street, Suite 401-402, Hackensack, NJ 07601
UK ofice: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
IONIZING RADIATION DETECTORS FOR MEDICAL IMAGING
Copyright 0 2004 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Re. Ltd.
All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereoj may not be reproduced in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval
system now known or to be invented, without written permission from the Publisher.
For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright
Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. In this case permission to
photocopy is not required from the publisher.
ISBN 981-238-674-2
Printed by Fulsland Offset Printing (S) Pte Ltd, Singapore
CONTENTS
Foreword
List of Contributors
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Medical Imaging
1.2 Ionizing Radiation Detectors Development: High Energy Physics
1.3 Ionizing Radiation Detectors for Medical Imaging
1.4 Conclusion
versus Medical Physics
Chapter 2. CONVENTIONAL RADIOLOGY
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Physical Properties of X-Ray Screens
2.2.1 Screen Eficiency
2.2.2 Swank Noise
2.3 Physical Properties of Radiographic Films
2.3.1 Film Characteristic Curve
2.3.2 Film Contrast
2.3.3 Contrast vs Latitude
2.3.4 Film Speed
2.3.5 Reciprocity-Law Failure
2.4 Radiographic Noise
2.5 Definition of Image-Quality
2.5.1 MTF
2.5.2 NPS
2.5.3 DQE
2.6 Image Contrast
2.6.1 The Concept of Sampling Aperture
2.6.2 Noise Contrast
2.6.3 Contrast-Detail Analysis
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2.7 Image-Quality of Screen-Film Combinations
2.7.1 MTF, NPS and DQE Measurement
2.7.2 Quality Indices
References
Chapter 3. DETECTORS FOR DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Characteristics of X-Ray Imaging Systems
3.2.1 Figure of Merit for Image Quality: Detective Quantum
3.2.2 Integrating vs Photon Counting Systems
Eficiency
3.3 Semiconductor materials for X-Ray Digital Detectors
3.4 X-Ray Imaging Technologies
3.4.1 Photo-Stimulable Storage Phosphor Imaging Plate
3.4.2 Scintillators/Phosphor + Semiconductor Material
3.4.3 Semiconductor Material (e.g. a-Se) + Readout Matrix Array
3.4.4 Scintillation Material (e.g. Csl) + CCD
3.4.5 20 microstrip Array on Semiconductor Crystal + Integrated
3.4.6 Matrix Array of Pixels on Crystals + VLSI Integrated
3.4.7 X-Ray-to-Light Converter Plates (AlGaAs)
(e.g. a-Si:H) + TFT Flat Panels
of Thin Film Transistors (TFT)
Front-End and Readout
Front-End and Readout
3.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 4. DETECTORS FOR CT SCANNERS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Basic Principle of CT Measurement and Standard Scanner
Configuration
4.3 Mechanical Design
4.4 X-Ray Components
4.5 Collimators and Filtration
4.6 Detector Systems
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vi
4.7 Concepts for Multi-Row Detectors
4.8 Outlook
Acknowledgment
References
Chapter 5. SPECIAL APPLICATIONS IN RADIOLOGY
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Special Applications
5.2.1. Mammography
5.2.2 Digital Mammography with Synchrotron Radiation
5.2.3. Subtraction Techniques at the k-Edge of Contrast Agents
5.2.3.1. Detectors and Detector Requirements for
Dichromography
5.2.4. Phase Effects
5.3 Conclusion and Outlook
Acknowledgment
Appendix
5.2.4.1. Detectors for Phase Imaging
A. Image formation and Detector Characterization
B. Digital Subtraction Technique
References
Chapter 6. AUTORADIOGRAPHY
6.1 Autoradiographic Methods
6.1.1 Traditional Autoradiography: Methods
6.1.2 Traditional Autoradiography: Limits
6.1.3 New Detectors for Autoradiography
6.2.1 Principles
6.2.2 Commercial Systems and Pe$ormance
6.3.1 Principles
6.3.2 Research Fields
6.3.3 Commercial Systems
6.4.1 Principles
6.2 Imaging Plates
6.3 Gaseous Detectors
6.4 Semiconductor Detectors
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6.4.2 Silicon Strip Detectors
6.4.2.1 Strip Architecture
6.4.2.2 Research Fields
6.4.2.3 Commercial Systems
6.4.3.1 Pixel Architecture
6.4.3.2 Research Systems
6.4.3 Pixel Detectors
6.5 Amorphous Materials
6.5.1 Principles
6.5.2 Research and Commercial Systems
6.6 CCD Based Systems
6.6.1 Principles
6.6.2 System Description and Pegormance
6.7.1 Principles
6.7.2 System Description and Performance
6.8 Microchannel Plates
6.8.1 Principles
6.8.2 System Description and Pegormance
6.7 Avalanche Photodiodes
References
Chapter 7. SPECT AND PLANAR IMAGING IN NUCLEAR
MEDICINE
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Collimators
7.2.1 Multi-Hole Theory
7.2.2 Single-Hole Theory
7.2.3 Penetration Effects
7.3.1 Scintillators
7.3 Detectors
7.3.1.1 Ya103: Ce
7.3.1.2 Gd2SiOs:Ce
7.3.1.3 Lu2SiOs:Ce
7.3.2.1 Materials
7.3.2.2 Nuclear Medicine Applications
7.3.2 Semiconductors
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...
Vlll
1.4 Reconstruction Algorithms
1.4.1 Inverse Problems
1.4.2 Ill-Posed Problems
1.4.3 Ill-Conditioning and Regularization
1.4.4 The Radon Transfom
1.4.5 Analytical Methods: Filtered Back-Projection
7.4.6 Iterative Algorithms
1.5.1 High-Resolution SPECT Imaging
I S.2 Planar Imaging from Semiconductor Detectors
1.5.3 Attenuation Corrected Imaging
7.5 Clinical Imaging
References
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269
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283
Chapter 8. POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY 281
281
8.1.1 Tomography Procedures and Terminologies 289
292
8.2.1 Positron Emission and Radionuclides 292
8.2.2 Annihilation of Positron 296
8.2.3 Interaction of Gamma Rays in Biological Tissue 302
303
8.3.1 Photon Detection with Inorganic Scintillator Crystals 304
8.3.2 Inorganic Scintillator Readout 311
8.3.3 Parallax Error, Radial Distortion and Depth of Interaction 316
8.4.1 The Filtered Backprojection 320
8.4.2 The Expectation Maximisation Algorithm 330
8.4.3 The OSEM Algorithm 336
8.5 Correction and Normalization Procedures 331
8.5.1 Attenuation 337
8.5.2 Scattering 34 1
8.5.3 Random Coincidences 348
8.5.4 Partial Volume Effect 350
8.5.5 Normalization 35 1
8.6 Commercial Camera Overview 353
References 355
8.1 Introduction to Emission Imaging
8.2 Physics of Positron Emission Tomography
8.3 Detection of Annihilation Photon
8.4 Image Reconstruction 318
ix
Chapter 9. NUCLEAR MEDICINE: SPECIAL APPLICATIONS
IN FUNCTIONAL IMAGING
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Position Sensitive Photo Multiplier Tube
9.2.1 Hamamatsu First PSPMT Generation
9.2.2 Hamamatsu Second PSPMT Generation
9.2.3 Hamamatsu 3rd Generation PSPMT
9.3 Signal Read Out Methods and Scintillation Crystals
9.4 The Role of Compact Imagers in Clinical Application
References
Chapter 10. SMALL ANIMAL SCANNERS
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Position Sensitive Detectors
10.2.1 Gamma-Ray Detection
10.2.2 Scintillator Based Position Sensitive Detectors
10.2.2.1 Continuous Scintillators
10.2.2.2 Matrix Crystals
10.3 Single Photon Emission Computerized Tomography (SPECT)
10.3.1 The Detector
10.3.1.1 Intrinsic Spatial Resolution in SPECT
10.3.1.2 Energy Resolution
10.3.1.3. Rate of Acquisition and Detector Speed
10.3.2.1 Pinhole Collimator
10.3.2.2 Parallel Hole Collimator
10.3.3 Small Animal SPECT Scanners Examples
10.3.2 Collimator Geometries
10.3.3.1 Pinhole Collimator Scanners
10.3.3.2 Parallel Hole Collimator Scanners
10.3.3.3 Converging Hole Collimator Scanner
10.4 Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
10.4.1 Physical Limitations to Spatial Resolution
10.4.1.1 Electron Fermi Motion
10.4.1.2 Scattering in the Source
10.4.1.3 Positron Range
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359
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3 97
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3 99
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X
10.4.2 ESficiency and Coincidence Detection of 511 keV
gamma rays
10.4.2.1 Intrinsic Detector ESficiency
10.4.2.2 Detector Scatter Fraction
10.4.2.3 Intrinsic Spatial Resolution
10.4.2.3.1 Detector intrinsic spatial resolution
10.4.2.3.2 System intrinsic spatial resolution
10.4.2.4 Random Coincidences and Pile Up Events
10.4.2.5 Energy Resolution
10.4.3 Small Animal PET Scanner Geometries
10.4.3.1 Planar Geometry
10.4.3.2 Ring Geometry
10.5 Small Animal PET Scanner Examples
10.5.1 First Generation Animal Scanners
10.5.1.1 Hamamatsu SHR-2000 and SHR-7700 Scanners
10.5.1.2 CTI-PET Systems ECAT-713
10.5.2.1 Hammersmith RatPET
10.5.2.2 MicroPET
10.5.2.3 Sherbrooke PET and the Munich MADPET
10.5.2.4 The NIH Atlas Scanner
10.5.2.5 Scanner of the Brussels Group: The VUB-PET
10.5.3 Dedicated Rodent Rotating Planar Scanners
10.5.3.1 YAP-(S)PET and TierPET
10.5.3.2 HIDAC
10.5.2 Dedicated Rodent Ring Scanners
10.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 11. DETECTORS FOR RADIOTHERAPY
1 1.1 Introduction
11.2 Introduction to Radiotherapy
1 1.2.1 External Beam Radiation Delivery
11.2.2 Requirements for Standards and Reporting
11.3 The Physics of Detection for Radiotherapy
1 1.3.1 Photon Interaction Mechanisms
1 1.3.2 Electron Interaction Mechanisms
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43 1
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46 1
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466
466
468
469
469
47 1
Xi
11.3.3 Units
11.3.4 Charged Particle Equilibrium and Cavity Theory
11.3.5 Effects of Measurement Depth
11.3.6 Quality Assurance and Verijkation Measurements
1 1.4.1 Ionisation Chambers
1 1.4.2 Themzoluminiscent Detectors
1 1.4.3 Diode Detectors
1 1.4.4 Diamond Detectors
11.4 Point Detectors
11.5 Film
1 1.6 Electronic Portal Imaging
11.6.1 Camera-Based Systems
11.6.2 Liquid Ionisation Chamber Based Systems
11.6.3 Amorphous Silicon Flat-Panel Systems
1 1.7.1 Fricke Dosimetry
11.7.2 Polymer Gels
11.7 Radio-Sensitive Chemical Detectors
References
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487
489
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496
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499
Analytical Index
xii
501
To Marta, Simone and Nicoli,