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Introduction to Research Methods: A Hands-On Approach,
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Introduction to Research Methods
To Maia and Ludmilla Antonia and their bright futures.
Introduction to Research Methods
A Hands-On Approach
Bora Pajo
Mercyhurst University
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Pajo, Bora, author.
Title: Introduction to research methods : a hands-on approach / Bora Pajo.
Description: Los Angeles : SAGE, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017021397 | ISBN 9781483386959 (pbk. : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Social sciences—Research—Methodology.
Classification: LCC H62 .P235 2017 | DDC 001.4/2—dc23 LC record available at
https://lccn.loc.gov/2017021397
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
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Brief Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1 • The Purpose of Research
Research in Action 1.1: Illustration of a Qualitative Study
Research in Action 1.2: Illustration of a Quantitative Study
Research Workshop 1.1: Complete a Course on Protecting Human
Research Participants
Chapter 2 • Formulating a Research Question
Research Workshop 2.1: An Example of Narrowing Down a
Research Interest
Ethical Consideration 2.1: Operationalizing Constructs Feature
Research Workshop 2.2: How to Identify Control Variables
Research in Action 2.1: Illustration of Operationalization of
Concepts
Chapter 3 • Researching and Writing the Literature Review
Research in Action 3.1: Illustration of Annotated Bibliographies
Ethical Consideration 3.1: Research Funding
Research in Action 3.2: Illustration of the Organization of
Literature
Research Workshop 3.1: Writing the Literature Review
Chapter 4 • Quantitative Designs
Research Workshop 4.1: The Advantages and Disadvantages of
Cross-Sectional Designs
Ethical Consideration 4.1: Informed Consent During a
Longitudinal Study
Research in Action 4.1: Illustration of an Experimental Design
Chapter 5 • Measurement Errors, Reliability, Validity
Research Workshop 5.1: How to Minimize Measurement Error
Research in Action 5.1: Details on Strengthening a Questionnaire
Ethical Consideration 5.1: Important When Selecting the
Appropriate Instrument
Research Workshop 5.2: How to Select the Perfect Valid and
Reliable Instrument for a Study
Chapter 6 • Sampling
Ethical Consideration 6.1: To Remember When Sampling
Research Workshop 6.1: Tips to Remember When Selecting NonProbability Sampling
Research in Action 6.1: Two Studies Using Proportionate and
Disproportionate Stratified Sampling
Research Workshop 6.2: Tips to Remember When Selecting a
Probability Sampling Method
Chapter 7 • Data Collection for Quantitative Research
Research Workshop 7.1: Conducting the Poverty-Simulation
Experiment
Ethical Consideration 7.1: Code of Research Ethics
Research in Action 7.1: The Use of Protocol to Ensure High
Validity
Research Workshop 7.2: Collecting Data
Research Workshop 7.3: Running Your Survey Online
Chapter 8 • Secondary Data
Research in Action 8.1: Illustration of a Replication of a Previous
Study
Research Workshop 8.1: Scraping Data
Research in Action 8.2: An Illustration of Available Datasets
Ethical Consideration 8.1: Study Participants and Secondary Data
Chapter 9 • Entering and Organizing Quantitative Data
Research Workshop 9.1: Exploring Software Packages
Ethical Consideration 9.1: Protecting the Anonymity of
Participants
Research in Action 9.1: Illustration of a Codebook
Chapter 10 • Analyzing Quantitative Data
Ethical Consideration 10.1: Representation of Data
Research in Action 10.1: Sample Size and Skewness
Research Workshop 10.1: How to Find Correlation Using Excel,
R, and SPSS
Chapter 11 • Qualitative Designs And Data Collection: Understanding
What Behavior Means in Context
Ethical Consideration 11.1: Field Work
Research Workshop 11.1: Entering and Exiting the Field
Research Workshop 11.2: Some Good Practices for Conducting
an In-Depth Qualitative Interview
Research Workshop 11.3: Preparing for Focus Groups
Ethical Consideration 11.2: Qualitative Interviewing
Research in Action 11.1: Illustration of a Mixed-Method Example
Chapter 12 • Entering, Coding, and Analyzing Qualitative Data
Research Workshop 12.1: Good Transcription Practices
Research in Action 12.1: Illustration of an Interview Transcript
Research in Action 12.2: Diagrams
Ethical Consideration 12.1: Confidentiality
Chapter 13 • Results and Discussion
Research in Action 13.1: Reporting Results
Research in Action 13.2: Organizing Findings
Research Workshop 13.1: Organization of Tables
Ethical Consideration 13.1: Misrepresenting Results
Research in Action 13.3: Illustration of Organizing the Discussion
Research Workshop 13.2: Two Ways of Organizing the
Discussion
Chapter 14 • Presenting Your Research
Ethical Consideration: Accurate Presentations and Anonymity
Research Workshop 14.1: Applying to Conferences
Research in Action 14.1: Illustration of a Presentation
References
Name Index
Subject Index
About the Author
Detailed Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1 • The Purpose of Research
Chapter Outline
Scientific Research and Its Purpose
Theories of Knowledge
Karl Popper’s Falsifiability
Thomas Kuhn’s Structure of Scientific Revolution
A Quick Look at Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods
Qualitative Research
Quantitative Research
• Research in Action 1.1: Illustration of a Qualitative Study
• Research in Action 1.2: Illustration of a Quantitative Study
Mixed Methods
Ethical Research
Ethical Rules
• Research Workshop 1.1: Complete a Course on Protecting
Human Research Participants
A Violation of Ethics
Researchers’ Biases
Summary
Key Terms
Taking a Step Further
Chapter 2 • Formulating a Research Question
Chapter Outline
Choosing a Research Topic
Deciding Between Fundamental or Applied Research
Narrowing the Research Topic
• Research Workshop 2.1: An Example of Narrowing Down
a Research Interest
Operationalization of Constructs
• Ethical Consideration 2.1: Operationalizing Constructs
Feature
Types of Variables
Independent and Dependent Variables
Control Variables
• Research Workshop 2.2: How to Identify Control Variables
Confounding and Disturbance Variables
Moderators and Mediators
Types of Hypotheses
Alternative Hypothesis and Null Hypothesis
• Research in Action 2.1: Illustration of Operationalization
of Concepts
Directional Hypothesis and Nondirectional Hypothesis
Open-Ended Question
Visualizing a Research Question
Summary
Key Terms
Taking a Step Further
Chapter 3 • Researching and Writing the Literature Review
Chapter Outline
Defining a Literature Review
Exploring the Literature
Using Libraries and Online Databases
Using Search Engines
Using Interlibrary Loan
Writing Annotated Bibliographies
Understanding and Organizing the Literature
Creating a Guiding Table
• Research in Action 3.1: Illustration of Annotated
Bibliographies
• Ethical Consideration 3.1: Research Funding
Using the Conceptual Graph
Organizing Your Work
Conceptualizing Literature: Patterns
• Research in Action 3.2: Illustration of the Organization of
Literature
Thinking Critically
Reading Critically
Analyzing Studies
Hypotheses
Systematic Reviews of Literature
Systematic Reviews Versus Literature Reviews
• Research Workshop 3.1: Writing the Literature Review
Summary
Key Terms
Taking a Step Further
Chapter 4 • Quantitative Designs
Chapter Outline
Categorizations of Research Studies
Exploratory Studies—Answering “What?”
Descriptive Studies—Answering “How?”
Explanatory Studies—Answering “Why?”
Cross-Sectional Versus Longitudinal Studies
Cross-Sectional Studies
• Research Workshop 4.1: The Advantages and
Disadvantages of Cross-Sectional Designs
Longitudinal Studies
• Ethical Consideration 4.1: Informed Consent During a
Longitudinal Study
Panel Studies
Trend Studies
Cohort Studies
Causality in Research
Nomothetic Research
Idiographic Research
Experimental Designs
Classic Experimental Design
Experimental and Control Groups
Random Assignment
Pre- and Posttesting
• Research in Action 4.1: Illustration of an Experimental
Design
Solomon Four-Group Experimental Design
Quasi-Experimental Designs
Randomized One-Group Posttest-Only Design
Randomized Posttest-Only Control Group Design
Non-Random Posttest-Only Control Group Design
Non-Random Pretest Posttest Control Group Design
Non-Random One-Group Pretest Posttest Design
Non-Experimental or Pre-Experimental Designs
Non-Random Cross-Sectional Survey Design
Longitudinal Cohort Study
Summary
Key Terms
Taking a Step Further
Chapter 5 • Measurement Errors, Reliability, Validity
Chapter Outline
Measurement Errors
Defining Measurement Error
Types of Measurement Errors
Random Error
Systematic Error
• Research Workshop 5.1: How to Minimize Measurement
Error
Reliability
Inter-Observer or Inter-Rater Reliability
Test-Retest Reliability
Internal Consistency Reliability
• Research in Action 5.1: Details on Strengthening a
Questionnaire
Validity
• Ethical Consideration 5.1: Important When Selecting the
Appropriate Instrument
Face Validity
Content Validity
Construct Validity
Criterion Validity, Concurrent Validity, and Predictive
Validity
• Research Workshop 5.2: How to Select the Perfect Valid
and Reliable Instrument for a Study
Summary
Key Terms
Taking a Step Further
Chapter 6 • Sampling
Chapter Outline