Introduction to mechatronics and measurement systems

and Measurement Systems

mtroller

Thu Vien DHKTCN-TN

KNV. 14001042

Introduction to Mechatronics

and M easurem ent Systems

GIFT OF

SABRE FOUNDATION USA

NOT FOR RESALE!

M c G r a w - H il l S e r i e s in M e c h a n i c a l E n g i n e e r i n g

A lciatore/H istand

Introduction to M echatronics and Measurement Systems

A nderson

Computational Fluid Dynamics: The Basics with

Applications

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Fundamentals o f Aerodynamics

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Introduction to Flight

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Modern Compressible Flow

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Intermediate Mechanics o f M aterials

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Vector Mechanics fo r Engineers: Statics and Dynamics

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Heat and M ass Transfer: A Practical Approach

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Introduction to Thermodynamics & Heat Transfer

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Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals a n d Applications

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Fundamentals o f Thermal-Fluid Sciences

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Intermediate Dynamics ^

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Engineering Design: A Materials & Processing Approach

Dieter

Mechanical Metallurgy

Doebelin

Measurement Systems: Applicationi & Design

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Technology Ventures: From Idea ito Enterprise

Dunn

Measurement & Data Analysis f o r Engineering & Science

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I-DEAS Student Guide

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Fluid Mechanics with Engineering Applications

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Fundamentals o f Vibrations

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Design o f Machinery

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An Introduction to Finite Element Method

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An Introduction to Combustion: Concepts and

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CAD/CAM Theory> and Practice

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Mastering CAD/CAM

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P/) y

Introduction to M echatronics

and M easurem ent Systems

T h i r d E d i t i o n

David G. Alciatore

D epartm ent o f M echanical Engineering

Colorado State University

Michael B. Histand

D epartm ent o f M echanical Engineering

Colorado State U niversity

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INTRODUCTION TO MECHATRONICS AND MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS. THIRD EDITION

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Alciatore, David G.

Introduction to mechatronics and measurement systems / David G. Alciatore, Michael B. Histand. — 3rd ed.

p. cm.

Includes index.

ISBN 978-0-07-296305-2— ISBN 0-07-296305-0 (hard copy : alk. paper)

I. Mechatronics. 2. Mensuration. I. Histand, Michael B. II. Title.

TJ163.12.H57 2007

621—dc22 2005023850

CIP

www.mhhe.com

C O N T E N T S

Lists ix

Figures ix

Tables xv

C lass D iscussion Item s xvi

Exam ples xviii

Design Exam ples xix

Threaded D esign Exam ples xx

P reface xxi

C h a p te r 1

Introduction 1

1.1 M echatronics 1

1.2 M easurem ent System s 4

1.3 Threaded D esign Exam ples 5

C h a p te r 2

Electric C ircuits

and Com ponents 12

2.1 Introduction 13

2.2 Basic Electrical Elem ents 15

2.2.1 Resistor 15

2.2.2 Capacitor 20

2.2.3 Inductor 21

2.3 K irch h o ff s Law s 22

2.3.1 Series Resistance Circuit 24

2.3.2 Parallel Resistance Circuit 26

2.4 V oltage and C urrent Sources and M eters 29

2.5 Thevenin and N orton Equivalent Circuits 34

2.6 A lternating C urrent Circuit A nalysis 36

2.7 Power in Electrical C ircuits 42

2.8 Transform er 43

2.9 Impedance M atching 45

2.10 Grounding and Electrical Interference 47

2.10.1 Electrical Safety 49

Chapter 3

Sem iconductor Electronics 58

3.1 Introduction 59

3.2 Sem iconductor Physics as the Basis for

Understanding Electronic Devices 59

3.3 Junction Diode 60

3.3.1 Zener Diode 65

3.3.2 Voltage Regulators 70

3.3.3 Optoelectronic Diodes 71

3.3.4 Analysis of Diode Circuits 73

3.4 Bipolar Junction Transistor 75

3.4.1 Bipolar Transistor Physics 75

3.4.2 Common Emitter Transistor Circuit 77

3.4.3 Bipolar Transistor Switch 79

3.4.4 Bipolar Transistor Packages 81

3.4.5 Darlington Transistor 82

3.4.6 Phototransistor and Optoisolator 82

3.5 Field-Effect Transistors 84

3.5.1 Behavior o f Field-Effect Transistors 85

3.5.2 Symbols Representing Field-Effect

Transistors 87

3.5.3 Applications o f MOSFETs 88

C h a p te r 4

System Response 98

4.1 System Response 99

4.2 Amplitude Linearity 100

4.3 Fourier Series Representation o f Signals 101

4.4 Bandwidth and Frequency Response 105

4.5 Phase L inearity 110 6.5

4 .6 D istortion o f S ignals 111 6.6

4.7 D ynam ic C h aracteristics o f S ystem s 113

4 .8 Z ero -O rd er S ystem 113

4 .9 F irst-O rd er S ystem 115

4.9.1 Experimental Testing o f a First-Order

System 117

4 .10 S eco n d -O rd er S ystem 118 6.7

4.10.1 Step Response o f a Second-Order

System 122 6.8

4.10.2 Frequency Response o f a System 124 6.9

4.11 S ystem M odeling and A n alo g ies 132

v i Contents

A nalog S ignal P ro cessin g Using

O p e ra tio n a l A m p lifie rs 143

5.1 Introduction 144

5 .2 A m p lifiers 144

5 .3 O perational A m p lifiers 145

5 .4 Ideal M odel for the O perational A m plifier 146

5.5 Inverting A m p lifier 149

5 .6 N o n in v ertin g A m p lifier 151

5.7 S u m m er 154

5 .8 D ifference A m p lifier 154

5 .9 Instrum entation A m p lifier 157

5 .1 0 In teg rato r 159

5.11 D ifferen tiato r 160

5 .12 S am ple and H old C ircu it 161

5.13 C o m p arato r 162

5.14 T he Real O p A m p 163

5.14.1 Important Parameters fro m Op Amp

Data Sheets 164

B oolean A lg eb ra 189

D esign o f L ogic N etw orks 191

6.6.1 Define the Problem in Words 191

6.6.2 Write Quasi-Logic Statements 192

6.6.3 Write the Boolean Expression /92

6.6.4 AND Realization 193

6.6.5 Draw the Circuit Diagram 193

F in d in g a B oolean E xpression G iven

a T ru th T able 194

S equential L ogic 196

F lip -F lo p s 197

6.9.1 Triggering o f Flip-Flops 198

6.9.2 Asynchronous Inputs 200

6.9.3 D Flip-Flop 201

6.9.4 JK Flip-Flop 202

6.10 A p p licatio n s o f F lip-F lops 204

6.10.1 Switch Debouncing 204

6.10.2 Data Register 206

6.10.3 Binary Counter and Frequency

Divider 206

6.10.4 Serial and Parallel Interfaces 206

6.11 T T L and C M O S Integrated C ircuits 208

6.11.1 Using Manufacturer IC Data Sheets 210

6.11.2 Digital IC Output Configurations 212

6.11.3 Interfacing TTL and CMOS Devices 214

6.12 Special P urpose D igital Integrated

C ircu its 217

6.12.1 Decade Counter 217

6.12.2 Schmitt Trigger 221

6.12.3 555 T im er 222

6.13 Integrated C ircuit S ystem D esign 224

6.13.1 IEEE Standard Digital Symbols 228

Chapter 7

M ic ro c o n tro lle r P rogram m ing

and In te rfa c in g 238

7.1 M icro p ro cesso rs and M icrocom puters 239

M icro co n tro llers 241

T h e P IC 16F84 M icro co n tro ller 244

P ro g ram m in g a PIC 248

D ig ital C irc u its 180

6.1 Introduction 181

6.2 D igital R ep resen tatio n s 182 7.2

6.3 C o m b in atio n al L ogic an d L ogic C lasses 185 7.3

6.4 T im in g D iagram s 188 7.4

Contents vii

7.5 PicBasic Pro 254

7.5.1 Pic Basic Pro Programming

Fundamentals 254

7.5.2 PicBasic Pro Programming Examples 262

7.6 Using Interrupts 273

7.7 Interfacing Com m on PIC Peripherals 277

7.7.1 Numeric Keypad 277

7.7.2 LCD Display 2X0

7.8 Interfacing to the PIC 285

7.X. I Digital Input to the PIC 2X7

7.X. 2 Digital Output from the PIC 2X7

7.9 M ethod to Design a M icrocontroller-Based

System 289

Chapter 8

Data Acquisition 317

8.1 Introduction 318

8.2 Quantizing Theory 321

8.3 Analog-to-Digital Conversion 323

8.3. / Introduction 323

8.3.2 Analog-to-Digital Converters 327

8.4 Digital-to-Analog Conversion 329

8.5 Virtual Instrumentation, Data Acquisition,

and Control 334

Chapter 9

Sensors 338

9.1 Introduction 339

9.2 Position and Speed M easurement 339

9.2.1 Proximity Sensors and Switches 340

9.2.2 Potentiometer 342

9.2.3 Linear Variable Differential

Transformer 342

9.2.4 Digital Optical Encoder 346

9.3 Stress and Strain M easurement 354

9.3. / Electrical Resistance Strain Gage 354

9.3.2 Measuring Resistance Changes

with a Wheatstone Bridge 358

9.3.3 Measuring Different States o f Stress

with Strain Gages 362

9.3.4 Force M easurement with Load Cells 367

9.4 Tem perature M easurement 370

9.4. / Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer 370

9.4.2 Bimetallic Strip 371

9.4.3 Electrical Resistance Thermometer 371

9.4.4 Thermocouple 372

9.5 Vibration and Acceleration

M easurement 379

9.5.1 Piezoelectric Accelerometer 384

9.6 Pressure and Flow M easurement 387

9.7 Sem iconductor Sensors and

M icroelectromechanical Devices 387

C h a p te r 1 0

Actuators 392

10.1 Introduction 393

10.2 Electrom agnetic Principles 393

10.3 Solenoids and Relays 394

10.4 Electric M otors 396

10.5 DC M otors 402

10.5.1 DC M otor Electrical Equations 405

10.5.2 Permanent Magnet DC M otor Dynamic

Equations 405

10.5.3 Electronic Control o f a Permanent M agnet

DC M otor 407

10.6 Stepper M otors 413

10.6.1 Stepper M otor Drive Circuits 418

10.7 Selecting a M otor 422

10.8 Hydraulics 426

10.8.1 Hydraulic Valves 428

10.8.2 Hydraulic Actuators 4 3 1

10.9 Pneum atics 432

C h a p te r 1 1

M echatronic System s—Control

Architectures and Case

Studies 436

11.1 Introduction 437

11.2 Control Architectures 437

11.2.1 Analog Circuits 437

viii Contents

11.2.2 Digital Circuits 438

11.2.3 Programmable Logic Controller 438

11.2.4 Microcontrollers and DSPs 438

11.2.5 Single-Board Computer 439

11.2.6 Personal Computer 439

11.3 Introduction to C ontrol T h eo ry 439

11.3.1 Armature-Controlled D C M otor 440

11.3.2 Open-Loop Response 442

11.3.3 Feedback Control o f a D C M otor 443

11.3.4 Controller Empirical Design 446

11.3.5 Controller Implementation 448

11.3.6 Conclusion 449

11.4 C ase S tudy 1— M y o electrically C ontrolled

R obotic A rm 449

11.5 C ase S tudy 2— M ech atro n ic D esign o f a C oin

C o u n ter 462

11.6 C ase S tudy 3— M ech atro n ic D esig n o f a

R obotic W alking M ach in e 471

11.7 L ist o f V arious M ech atro n ic S ystem s 477

Appendix A

M e a su re m en t F u n d am e n ta ls 479

A .l S ystem s o f U nits 479

A. 1.1 Three Classes o f SI Units 481

A. 1.2 Conversion Factors 483

A .2 S ig n ifican t Figures 484

A .3 S tatistics 486

A .4 E rror A n aly sis 489

A. 4.1 Rules fo r Estimating Errors 489

P hysical P rin cip le s 492

Appendix C

M ec h a n ic s of M a te ria ls 497

C . l S tress and S train R elations 497

In d ex 501

FIGURES

1.1 M echatronic system com ponents 3

1.2 Inkjet printer com ponents 3

1.3 Elements o f a m easurement system 4

1.4 Functional diagram o f the DC m otor

speed controller 6

1.5 Photograph o f the pow er am p speed

controller 7

1.6 Functional diagram o f the stepper motor

position and speed controller 8

1.7 Photograph o f the stepper m otor position and

speed controller 8

1.8 Functional diagram for the DC m otor position

and speed controller 9

1.9 Photograph o f the DC motor position and

speed controller 10

2.1 Electrical circuits 14

2.2 Electric circuit terminology 14

2.3 Schem atic symbols for basic electrical

elem ents 15

2.4 Examples o f basic circuit elem ents 16

2.5 Voltage-current relation for an ideal

resistor 16

2.6 Wire resistance 17

2.7 Resistor packaging 18

2.8 Examples o f resistor packaging 18

2.9 A xial-lead resistor color bands 19

2.10 Potentiom eter schem atic symbols 20

2.11 Parallel plate capacitor 20

2.12 Inductor flux linkage 22

2.13 K irchhoffs voltage law 23

2.14 K irchhoffs current law 25

2.15 Series resistance circuit 25

2.16 Parallel resistance circuit 27

2.17 Real voltage source with output

im pedance 30

2.18 Ex am ple o f com mercially available

voltage sources 30

2.19 Real current source with output

im pedance 31

2.20 Real am m eter with input impedance 31

2.21 Real voltm eter with input impedance 31

2.22 Examples o f com mercially available digital

multim eters 32

2.23 Example o f a com mercially available

oscilloscope 32

2.24 Example illustrating Thevenin's theorem 35

2.25 Thevenin equivalent circuit 35

2.26 Norton equivalent circuit 36

2.27 Sinusoidal w aveform 36

2.28 Sinusoidal signal DC offset 37

2.29 Phasor representation o f a sinusoidal

signal 39

2.30 Power in a circuit element 42

2.31 Transform er 44

2.32 Signal term ination 45

2.33 Impedance matching— string analogy 45

2.34 Impedance matching 46

2.35 Com m on ground 47

2.36 Inductive coupling 48

2.37 Three-prong AC power plug 49

3.1 V alence and conduction bands of

m aterials 60

3.2 pn junction characteristics 61

3.3 Silicon diode 62

3.4 Examples o f com mon diodes 62

3.5 Diode check valve analogy 63

3.6 Ideal, approxim ate, and real diode

curves 63

3.7 Zener diode symbol and current-voltage

relationship 66 j

3 .8 Z en er dio d e voltage reg u lato r 66

3 .9 Z en er dio d e voltage reg u lato r circu it 68

3 .1 0 15 V regulated D C supply 70

3.11 1.2 to 37 V ad ju stab le reg u lato r 71

3 .12 L ight-em itting diode 72

3 .13 T ypical L E D circu it in digital sy stem s 72

3 .1 4 P h otodiode light d etecto r circu it 72

3 .15 npn b ipolar ju n c tio n tran sisto r 75

3 .1 6 pnp b ipolar ju n c tio n tran sisto r 76

3 .17 C om m on em itter circu it 77

3 .18 C om m on em itter ch aracteristics fo r a

tran sisto r 78

3 .19 T ra n sisto r sw itch circu it 79

3 .20 M odels fo r tran sisto r sw itch states 79

3.21 B ipolar tran sisto r packages 81

3 .22 V arious co m m o n tran sisto r p ack ag es 82

3 .23 D arlington p air 82

3 .24 O p to iso lato r 82

3 .25 n-channel en h an cem en t-m o d e M O S F E T 85

3 .26 E n h an cem en t-m o d e M O S F E T n-channel

form ation 85

3 .27 n-channel en h an cem en t-m o d e M O S F E T

ch aracteristic cu rv es 86

3 .28 p-channel en h an cem en t-m o d e

M O S F E T 87

3 .29 F ield-effect tran sisto r schem atic

sym bols 88

3 .30 M O S F E T pow er sw itch circu it 88

3.31 M O S F E T an alo g sw itch circu it 89

4.1 M easurem ent system in p u t-o u tp u t 99

4 .2 A m plitude linearity and n o n lin earity 100

4 .3 Square w ave 103

4 .4 H arm onic decom position o f a square

w ave 104

4.5 S pectrum o f a sq u are w ave 104

4 .6 F requency response and b andw idth 105

4.7 E ffect o f m easu rem en t system b andw idth

on signal spectrum 107

4.8 R elatio n sh ip betw een p h ase and tim e

disp lacem en t 110

x Figures

4.9 A m plitude d istortion o f a square w ave 111

4.10 Phase disto rtio n o f a square w av e 112

4.11 D isplacem ent p o ten tio m eter 114

4.12 F irst-order resp o n se 117

4.13 E xperim ental d eterm ination o f t 118

4.14 S eco n d -o rd er m echanical system and

free-body d iag ram 119

4 .15 S trip ch art reco rd er as an ex am p le o f a

second-order system 119

4 .1 6 T ransient resp o n se o f seco n d -o rd er

system s 122

4 .17 S econd-order step resp o n ses 123

4.18 F eatures o f an underd am p ed step

response 123

4 .19 S econd-order system am plitude

response 126

4 .20 S eco n d -o rd er system p h ase resp o n se 127

4.21 E xam ple o f system analogies 133

4 .22 M echanical system analogy ex am p le 135

4 .23 B eginning the an alo g sch em atic 135

4 .24 E lectrical system analogy ex am p le 136

5.1 A m p lifier m odel 145

5.2 O p am p term in o lo g y and schem atic

rep resentation 146

5.3 O p am p feedback 147

5.4 O p am p eq u iv alen t circu it 147

5.5 741 op am p pin-out 148

5.6 741 internal d esig n 149

5.7 Inverting am p lifier 150

5.8 E quivalent circu it for an inverting

am p lifier 150

5 .9 Illustration o f inversion 151

5 .1 0 N oninverting am p lifier 151

5.11 E quivalent circu it for a n oninverting

am p lifier 152

5 .12 B uffer o r fo llo w er 152

5 .13 S u m m er circu it 155

5 .14 D ifference am p lifier circuit 155

5.15 D ifference am p lifier w ith V2 sh o rted 155

5 .16 D ifference am p lifier w ith V, sh o rted 156

Figures xi

5.17 Instrumentation am plifier 157

5.18 Ideal integrator 159

5.19 Improved integrator 160

5.20 D ifferentiator 161

5.21 Sample and hold circuit 162

5.22 Com parator 162

5.23 Com parator open-col lector output 163

5.24 Effect o f slew rate on a square w ave 164

5.25 Typical op am p open- and closed-loop

response 165

5.26 Example op am p data sheet 167

5.27 TL071 FET input op am p 169

6.1 A nalog and digital signals 181

6.2 AND gate timing diagram 188

6.3 OR gate timing diagram 188

6.4 AND realization schem atic of the security

system 193

6.5 Clock pulse edges 196

6.6 RS flip-flop 197

6.7 RS flip-flop internal design and timing 198

6.8 Edge-trigeered RS flip-flops 199

6.9 Positive edge-triggered RS flip-flop timing

diagram 200

6.10 Latch 200

6.11 Latch timing diagram 200

6.12 Preset and clear flip-flop functions 201

6.13 Positive edge-triggered D flip-flop 201

6.14 Negative edge-triggered JK flip-flop 202

6.15 Positive edge-triggered T flip-flop 203

6.16 Switch bounce 205

6.17 Switch debouncer circuit 205

6.18 4-bit data register 206

6.19 4-bit binary counter 207

6.20 Serial-to-parallel converter 207

6.21 Parallel-to-serial converter 207

6.22 TTL and CM OS input and output

levels 208

6.23 TTL and CM OS output circuits 209

6.24 NAND gate internal design 211

6.25 QUAD NAND gate IC pin-out 2 12

6.26 D M 74LS00 NAND gate IC data sheet 213

6.27 CM OS 401 IB NAND gate internal

design 214

6.28 CM OS 4 0 11B NAND gate IC data sheet 215

6.29 O pen-collector output with pull-up

resistor 215

6.30 Interfacing TTL to digital devices 216

6.31 Interfacing CM OS to digital devices 217

6.32 Decade counter timing 218

6.33 Cascaded decade counters 2 18

6.34 Seven-segm ent LED display 219

6.35 Two-digit LED display and a 7447 display

decoder 219

6.36 7447 internal design 220

6.37 7447 output circuit 220

6.38 Input and output o f a Schmitt

trigger 221

6.39 Schmitt trigger SPST debounce circuit 221

6.40 Block diagram o f the 555 IC 222

6.41 555 pin-out 223

6.42 M onostable multivibrator (one-shot) 223

6.43 One-shot timing 224

6.44 Astable pulse generator 224

6.45 IEEE standard symbols for digital ICs 228

7.1 M icrocom puter architecture 240

7.2 Components o f a typical full-featured

m icrocontroller 243

7.3 PIC 16F84 block diagram 245

7.4 PIC 16F84 pin-out and required external

com ponents 246

7.5 Required PIC 16F84 com ponents on a

breadboard 247

7.6 Reset switch circuit 248

7.7 Circuit schem atic for the flash.bas

exam ple 255

7.8 Interrupt exam ple schem atic 276

7.9 Numeric keypad 278

7.10 Photograph o f 12-key and 16-key numeric

keypads 278

7.11 N um eric keypad schem atic and PIC

interface 279

7 .12 P hotograph o f an LC D 281

7 .13 L C D PIC interface 282

7 .14 B lock diag ram fo r pins RAO th ro u g h

RA 3 286

7 .15 B lock diagram fo r pin R A 4 286

7 .16 B lock diagram for pins R B 4 th ro u g h

R B 7 286

7 .17 B lock diagram fo r pins RBO th ro u g h

RB3 286

7 .18 Interface circuits fo r input d ev ices 287

7 .19 Interface circuits fo r o utput

dev ices 288

7 .2 0 S o ftw are flo w ch art building

blocks 290

8.1 A nalog signal and sam pled

eq u iv alen t 318

8 .2 A liasing 319

8.3 A n alo g -to -d ig ital co n v ersio n 322

8.4 C o m p o n en ts used in A /D co n v ersio n 323

8 .5 V arious form factors o f d ata acq u isitio n

products 324

8.6 E xam ple d ata acquisition and control

card 325

8 .7 E xam ple d ata acquisition and co n tro l card

arch itectu re 326

8 .8 A /D co nversion ap ertu re tim e 326

8.9 S uccessive ap p ro x im atio n A /D

co n v erter 327

8 .10 4 -b it su ccessiv e ap p ro x im atio n A /D

co nversion 328

8.11 A /D flash co n v erter 329

8 .12 4 -b it resisto r ladder D /A co n v e rter 330

8 .13 4 -b it resisto r ladder D /A w ith dig ital input

0001 330

8 .14 C o m p u ter control h ard w are 333

8 .1 5 E xam ple custom graphical user interface

created w ith L abV IE W 335

8 .1 6 E xam ple L ab V IE W block d iag ram 336

xii Figures

9.1 V arious co n fig u ratio n s fo r p hotoem itter￾detecto r pairs 340

9.2 E xam ple o f a p h o to em itter-d etecto r p air in a

single h ousing 340

9.3 S w itches 341

9.4 P hotograph o f various types o f

sw itches 341

9.5 P o ten tio m eter 342

9.6 P hotograph o f a trim pot and a

rotary pot 343

9.7 L in ear v ariable differen tial tran sfo rm er 343

9.8 L V D T linear ran g e 344

9.9 L V D T dem o d u latio n 344

9 .10 L V D T o utput filter 345

9.11 C om m ercial L V D T 345

9.12 C om p o n en ts o f an optical en co d er 346

9.13 4 -b it gray co d e ab so lu te en co d er d isk track

patterns 347

9.14 4 -b it natural binary absolute en co d er disk track

patterns 348

9.15 G ray -co d e-to -b in ary -co d e co n v ersio n 349

9.16 Increm ental en co d er disk track p attern s 350

9.17 Q uadrature direction sensing an d resolution

enh an cem en t 350

9.18 IX qu ad ratu re d eco d er circuit 351

9.19 M etal foil strain gage co n stru ctio n 355

9.20 Strain g ag e application 356

9.21 R ectangular co n d u cto r 356

9.22 S tatic balanced bridge circu it 359

9 .23 D ynam ic u nbalanced bridge circu it 360

9 .24 L eadw ire effects in 1/4 bridge circu its 361

9.25 T em p eratu re co m p en satio n w ith a dum m y

gage in a h alf bridge circu it 362

9.26 B ar under uniaxial stress 363

9.27 B iaxial stress in a long, th in -w alled pressure

vessel 363

9.28 G eneral state o f plan ar stress on th e su rface of

a com p o n en t 365

9.29 A ssortm ent o f differen t strain g ag e and rosette

co n fig u ratio n s 365

Figures xiii

9.30 M ost com mon strain gage rosette

configurations 365

9.31 Rectangular strain gage rosette 366

9.32 Various three-gage com mercial rosettes 366

9.33 Typical axial load cells 368

9.34 Bimetallic strip 371

9.35 Therm oelectric junction 372

9.36 Therm ocouple circuit 372

9.37 Law of leadwire temperatures 373

9.38 Law of intermediate leadwire metals 373

9.39 Law of intermediate junction metals 374

9.40 Law of intermediate tem peratures 374

9.41 Law of intermediate metals 374

9.42 Standard thermocouple configuration 375

9.43 Attaching leadwires o f selected metal 375

9.44 Thermopile 376

9.45 Therm ocouple types and characteristics 378

9.46 A ccelerom eter displacem ent references and

free-body diagram 379

9.47 Ideal accelerom eter am plitude response 382

9.48 Ideal accelerom eter phase response 382

9.49 V ibrom eter am plitude response 383

9.50 Piezoelectric accelerometer

construction 384

9.51 Equivalent circuit for piezoelectric

crystal 385

9.52 Thevenin equivalent o f piezoelectric

crystal 385

9.53 Piezoelectric accelerom eter frequency

response 386

9.54 Surface acoustic w ave transponder

device 388

10.1 Right-hand rule for magnetic force 394

10.2 Solenoids 395

10.3 V oice coil 395

10.4 Photograph o f a voice coil iron core

and coil 396

10.5 Configuration classification o f electric

motors 397

10.6 M otor construction and terminology 397

10.7 Examples o f commercial motors 398

10.8 Electric m otor field-current interaction 399

10.9 Electric m otor six-winding com m utator 399

10.10 Electric motor field-field interaction 401

10.11 M otor torque-speed curve 403

10.12 DC perm anent magnet m otor schem atic and

torque-speed curve 403

10.13 DC shunt m otor schem atic and torque-speed

curve 403

10.14 DC series motor schem atic and torque-speed

curve 403

10.15 DC com pound m otor schem atic and torque￾speed curve 403

10.16 M otor arm ature equivalent circuit 404

10.17 Permanent magnet DC motor

characteristics 406

10.18 Pulse width modulation o f a DC motor 408

10.19 PWM velocity feedback control 409

10.20 PWM voltage and motor current 409

10.21 Stepper motor step sequence 414

10.22 Dynamic response o f a single step 415

10.23 Stepper m otor torque-speed curves 415

10.24 Standard unipolar stepper m otor field coil

schem atic 416

10.25 Example o f a unipolar stepper motor 417

10.26 Typical stepper m otor rotor and stator

configuration 418

10.27 Actual stepper motor rotor 4 18

10.28 U nipolar stepper m otor full-step drive

circuit 418

10.29 Tim ing diagram for full-step unipolar stepper

motor drive circuit 4 19

10.30 Typical stepper motor performance

curves 423

10.31 Typical servom otor performance

curves 423

10.32 M otor operating speed 425

10.33 Hydraulic system com ponents 426

10.34 Gear pump 426

10.35 V ane pum p 427

10.36 S w ash plate piston p u m p 427

10.37 P ressure regulator 428

10.38 4/3 valve schem atic 428

10.39 D ouble-acting h y d rau lic cy lin d er 428

10.40 C heck and poppet v alves 429

10.41 S pool valve 4 3 0

10.42 P ilot-operated spool valve 430

10.43 S in g le-actin g and d o u b le-actin g

cy lin d ers 431

10.44 E x am p le m echanism s driven by a hydraulic

cy lin d er 431

10.45 P neum atic system co m p o n en ts 432

11.1 A rm atu re-co n tro lled D C m o to r 442

1 1.2 B lock diagram for the D C m o to r system

(p lan t) 442

11.3 S im u lin k m odel block d iag ram 443

11.4 T he an g u lar v elocity o utput fo r a step input

voltage 443

11.5 G eneral feedback co n tro l system 444

11.6 S im u lin k m odel o f an ex am p le m o to r

w ith a P ID co n tro ller 445

11.7 T h e effects o f various proportional

g ain s 445

11.8 T h e effects o f v arious d eriv ativ e g ain s 446

11.9 T h e effects o f various integral g ain s 447

1 1 .1 0 A n alo g PID co n tro ller co n stru cted from

o p am p circuits 448

11.11 P roject phases 4 5 0

11.12 S ystem o v erview 452

11.13 M A X 2 3 2 level co n v erter 454

xiv Figures

11.14 Serial port 4 5 4

11.15 C on d itio n in g circu it diagram 455

11.16 C on d itio n in g circuit PC B layout 456

11.17 C on d itio n in g circu it photo 456

11.18 PIC to A dept interface circu it 457

11.19 A /D co n v erter P IC flo w ch art 458

11.20 Interface PIC flo w ch art 458

11.21 E xam ple o f coin co u n ter presentation

m echanism s 463

11.22 S ensor array and chute design 465

11.23 T T L outputs co rresp o n d in g to differen t

coins 466

11.24 C o u n ter desig n 1 467

11.25 C o u n ter desig n 2 469

11.26 S tudent-designed w alking m achines from

C o lo rad o State U niversity 473

11.27 A lum inum fram e and telesco p in g pneum atic

legs 474

11.28 F low chart for forw ard m otion ro u tin e 475

11.29 P neum atic system 476

11.30 C om puter ports and I/O board 476

A .l H istogram o f ex p erim en tal d ata 487

A .2 D istributions o f data 487

A .3 A ccuracy and p recision 4 9 0

C .l A xial and tran sv erse d efo rm atio n o f a

cylindrical b ar 498

C .2 G eneral state o f p lan ar stress an d principal

stresses 499

C .3 M ohr's circle o f plane stresses 500