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International tourism: cultures and behavior
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International Tourism:
Cultures and Behavior
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International Tourism:
Cultures and Behavior
First Edition
Yvette Reisinger PhD
AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD
PARIS • SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier
Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier
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Preface xvii
List of Tables xxi
List of Figures xxiii
Introduction xxv
Acknowledgements xxix
Part 1 International Tourism: The Global Environment
CHAPTER 1 Globalization, tourism and culture 3
Introduction 3
1.1 The concept and roots of globalization 3
1.2 Benefi ts and criticism of globalization 6
1.3 Globalization and the tourism industry 8
1.3.1 The infl uence of globalization on tourism 8
1.3.2 Forms and examples of globalization in
tourism 9
1.3.3 A new type of tourist 10
1.3.4 A new type of tourism 13
1.4 Globalization and culture 15
1.4.1 The emergence of globalized consumer
culture? 15
1.4.2 Global consumer and global products? 16
1.4.3 Disappearance of local cultures? 16
1.4.4 Cultural homogenization? 17
1.4.5 Product standardization or customization? 18
1.4.6 Cultural heterogenization? 19
1.4.7 Cultural convergence or divergence? 19
1.4.8 Cultural hybridization? 19
1.4.9 Cultural commoditization? 20
1.4.10 Cultural deterioration, loss, adaptation or
change? 20
1.4.11 Consumerism a bad thing for tourism? 21
1.4.12 Globalization and disappearance of local
identity? 21
1.4.13 Resistance to cultural change and emergence
of local identity 22
1.4.14 Glocalisation 23
Contents
v
1.4.15 Local internationalization and regional
cooperation 23
1.5 Benefi ts and limitations of globalization in tourism 23
1.6 Challenges of globalization in tourism 24
1.7 The future of globalization: Americanization of culture,
cosmopolitan culture, cultural hybridization, cultural
disappearance or culture clash? 25
Summary 27
Discussion points and questions 28
Case Study 1.1: The emergence of a global tourist culture?
Disneyland resorts spread over the world 28
Website links 29
CHAPTER 2 Cultural diversity 31
Introduction 31
2.1 The concept of cultural diversity 32
2.1.1 Defi nition 32
2.1.2 Interpretation of cultural diversity 33
2.1.3 How did the concept of cultural diversity
develop? 34
2.1.4 How to measure cultural diversity? 34
2.1.5 Is cultural diversity important? 34
2.1.6 The benefi ts of cultural diversity 35
2.1.7 The infl uence of cultural diversity on tourism
and hospitality 35
2.2 UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity 37
2.3 The future of cultural diversity 39
2.4 Challenges for the tourism and hospitality industry 40
Summary 41
Discussion points and questions 42
Case Study 2.1: American in Paris 42
Case Study 2.2: Creativity in a tense situation 43
Case Study 2.3: Promoting the “unpromotional” 44
Website links 45
Part 2 Cultural Theories and Practices
Chapter 3 Intercultural theories 49
Introduction 49
3.1 Communication Resourcefulness Theory (CRT) 50
vi Contents
3.2 Episode Representation Theory (ERT) 51
3.3 Expectations Theory (ET) 52
3.4 Cultural Identity Negotiation Theory (CINT) 53
3.5 Meaning of Meaning Theory 54
3.6 Network Theory in Intercultural Communication 54
3.7 Taxonomic Approach (TA) 56
3.8 Anxiety/Uncertainty Management Theory (AUMT) 57
3.9 Stranger Theory 59
3.10 Face-Negotiation Theory 59
3.11 Intercultural Adaptation Theory (IAT) 59
3.12 Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT) 60
3.13 Coordinated Management of Meaning Theory
(CMMT) 63
3.14 Constructivist Theory (CT) 64
Summary 64
Discussion points and questions 65
Website links 65
Chapter 4 Cultural practices and tourism impacts on culture 67
Introduction 67
4.1 Erosion of local cultures 67
4.2 Cultural commoditization and transformation 68
4.3 Cultural hostility 68
4.4 Cultural arrogance 68
4.5 Authenticity of tourism experiences 69
4.6 Renaissance of traditional art forms 69
4.7 Marketing of culture and violation of rights to own
cultural heritage 70
4.8 Culture change 70
4.9 Culture diffusion 71
4.10 Cultural borrowing 71
4.11 Cultural drift 72
4.12 Acculturation 73
4.13 Cultural adaptation 74
4.14 Cultural adjustment 75
4.15 Culture assimilation 75
4.16 Enculturation 77
4.17 Demonstration effect 77
4.18 Cultural confl ict 78
Contents vii
Summary 80
Discussion points and questions 80
Case Study 4.1: Discovering the Maori culture 81
Website links 82
Part 3 Culture and Cultural Differences
CHAPTER 5 Culture 85
Introduction 85
5.1 Defi nition of culture 86
5.2 Culture as civilization 91
5.3 Cultures by region 91
5.4 Culture as religion 92
5.5 The world’s major religions 92
5.6 Religion by region 96
5.7 Types and levels of culture 98
5.8 Civilization 101
5.9 Types of cultures in tourism 104
5.10 The purpose of culture 104
5.11 Characteristics of culture 105
5.12 Subcultures 106
5.13 Culture versus nationality 109
5.14 Culture versus country of residence 109
5.15 Culture versus country of birth 110
5.16 Cultural identity 110
5.17 Cultural distance 111
5.18 The impact of cultural distance on travel 112
5.19 The measurement of cultural distance 113
Summary 114
Discussion points and questions 115
Case Study 5.1: Micro-cultures of the US 115
Website links 117
CHATPER 6 Cultural variability 119
Introduction 119
6.1 Sources of cultural differences 119
6.2 Cultural values 122
6.2.1 Concept and defi nitions 122
6.2.2 Culture and values 123
viii Contents
6.2.3 Value system and value orientation 123
6.2.4 Value orientation 124
6.2.5 Types of values 124
6.2.6 Classifi cation of values 124
6.2.7 Measurement and analysis of values 125
6.2.8 Value studies in tourism 127
6.2.9 Cultural value dimensions 127
6.2.9.1 Parson’s pattern variables 128
6.2.9.2 Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s
value orientation 129
6.2.9.3 Stewart’s cultural patterns 132
6.2.9.4 Hall’s cultural differentiation 134
6.2.9.5 Hofstede’s dimensions of cultural
variability 139
6.2.9.6 Bond’s Confucian cultural patterns 150
6.2.9.7 Argyle’s cultural differentiation 151
6.2.9.8 Schein’s, Trompenaars’ and
Maznevski’s cultural differentiation 152
6.2.9.9 Schneider and Barsoux’s cultural
assumptions 154
6.2.9.10 Inglehart’s cultural dimensions 155
6.2.9.11 Minkov’s World Value Survey 155
Summary 161
Discussion points and questions 161
Exercises 161
Case Study 6.1: The US culture 162
Website links 163
CHAPTER 7 Cultural infl uences on intercultural communication 165
Introduction 165
7.1 The concept of communication 166
7.2 What is intercultural communication? 167
7.3 Diffi culties in intercultural communication 168
7.3.1 Verbal signals 168
7.3.2 Non-verbal signals 170
7.3.3 Relationship patterns 173
7.3.4 Conversation style 178
7.3.5 Interaction style 180
7.3.6 Values 181
Contents ix
7.3.7 Time orientation 187
7.3.8 Context orientation 187
7.4 Is intercultural communication possible? 190
7.5 Ethnocentrism 192
7.6 Stereotyping 192
7.7 Prejudices 194
7.8 Racism 195
7.9 Strategies for improving intercultural communication 195
7.10 The ethics of intercultural communication 196
Summary 196
Discussion points and questions 197
Case Study 7.1: Courtesy and politeness in Thailand and
Australia 197
Website links 198
CHATPER 8 Cultural infl uences on social interaction 199
Introduction 199
8.1 The concept of scoial interaction 199
8.2 Social interaction in tourism 201
8.2.1 The nature of tourist–host social interaction 205
8.2.2 Context 206
8.3 Intercultural social interaction 209
8.3.1 Dimensions of intercultural encounters 209
8.3.2 Interculturalness of social interaction 209
8.3.3 Degree of interculturalness 210
8.4 Types of intercultural interaction 210
8.5 Model of cross-cultural social interaction 211
8.6 Contact hypothesis 212
8.7 Contact hypothesis in tourism 213
8.8 Diffi culties in cross-cultural interaction 213
8.9 Culture shock 214
8.9.1 Symptoms of culture shock 215
8.9.2 Types of culture shock 216
8.9.3 How long does culture shock last? 216
8.9.4 Culture shock and social interaction 216
8.9.5 Culture shock in tourism 216
8.9.6 Phases of culture shock 217
8.9.7 Intensity and duration of culture shock 219
8.9.8 Doxey’s Irridex ‘‘Irritation Index’’ 220
x Contents
Summary 221
Discussion points and questions 222
Case Study 8.1: Shanghai night or nightmare? 222
Website links 223
CHATPER 9 Cultural infl uences on rules of social interaction 225
Introduction 225
9.1 Rules of social interaction 225
9.2 Orders and types of rules 226
9.3 Relationship rules 227
9.4 Cultural infl uences on rules of social interaction 227
9.5 Understanding rules of social interaction 228
9.6 Breaking rules 228
9.7 Cross-cultural differences in rules of social interaction 229
Summary 229
Discussion points and questions 230
Case Study 9.1: Universal and specifi c rules of social
relationships 230
Websites 231
CHATPER 10 Cultural infl uences on service 233
Introduction 233
10.1 The concept of service 233
10.2 Service encounter 234
10.3 Service classifi cation 234
10.4 Key characteristics of service 234
10.5 Importance of service perceptions 237
10.6 Cultural differences in expectations from service 237
10.7 Service quality and value 238
10.8 Service satisfaction 240
10.9 Do cultural differences always matter? 240
Summary 241
Discussion points and questions 241
Case Study 10.1: Chinese travelers in France 242
Website links 242
CHATPER 11 Cultural infl uences on ethics 243
Introduction 243
The concept of ethics 244
11.1 Ethics in tourism 245
Contents xi
11.2 Ethics in a cross-cultural context 247
11.3 Cultural infl uences in ethical behavior 247
11.4 The most debatable business ethics issues 248
11.5 Confl icting ethical behavior and practices in
tourism and hospitality. Ethical dilemmas 251
11.6 Theories and frameworks dealing with ethical
dilemmas 254
11.7 Strategies for managing business ethical dilemmas 256
11.8 Global Code of Ethics for Tourism 257
Summary 257
Discussion points and questions 258
Case Study 11.1: Global Code of Ethics for Tourism 258
Website links 261
Part 4 Tourist Behavior
CHATPER 12 Human behavior: its nature and determinants 265
Introduction 265
12.1 The concept of human behavior 266
12.2 Environmental factors infl uencing human behavior 268
12.3 Theories of human behavior 270
12.3.1 Cause-Motive-Behavior-Goal Theory 271
12.3.2 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 272
12.3.3 Alderfer’s ERG Theory 276
12.3.4 Herzberg, Mausner, and Snyderman’s
Two-Factor Theory 276
12.3.5 Expectancy Theory 276
12.3.6 Cognitive Dissonance Theory 277
12.3.7 Reinforcement Theory 277
12.3.8 Equity Theory 277
12.3.9 McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory 278
12.4 Basic needs of human behavior 278
12.5 Factors infl uencing human needs 279
12.6 The concept of tourist behavior 279
12.7 The nature of tourist behavior 279
12.8 The meaning of tourist behavior 281
12.9 The importance of studying tourist behavior 282
12.10 The importance of studying tourist behavior in a
cross-cultural context 283
xii Contents
12.11 Benefi ts of understanding tourist behavior in a
cross-cultural context 284
12.11.1 Tourism industry perspective 284
12.11.2 Tourist perspective 285
12.11.3 Local resident perspective 286
Summary 287
Discussion points and questions 287
Case Study 12.1: The Asian woman’s shopping experience:
New research from Thailand 288
Website links 288
CHATPER 13 Consumer buying behavior 289
Introduction 289
13.1 Environmental Factors 291
13.1.1 Environmental stimuli 291
13.2 Buyer’s factors 301
13.2.1 Buyer’s personal characteristics 301
13.2.2 Decision process 305
13.3 Other theories of consumer decision-making 318
Summary 318
Discussion points and questions 319
Website links 320
CHATPER 14 Cultural infl uences on tourist buying behavior 321
Introduction 321
14.1 Cultural infl uence on buyer’s personal characteristics 322
14.1.1 Gender roles 322
14.1.2 Lifestyle and activities 323
14.1.3 Personality 324
14.1.4 The self concept 325
14.2 Cultural infl uences on buyer’s psychological
characteristics 326
14.2.1 Motivation and needs 326
14.2.2 Perception and image 326
14.2.3 Learning and knowledge 328
14.2.4 Attitudes 329
14.2.5 Attribution 330
14.3 Cultural infl uences on buyer’s decision process 330
14.3.1 Need recognition 330
Contents xiii
14.3.2 Information search and choice of
information sources 331
14.3.2.1 The role of reference groups 332
14.3.2.2 The role of opinion leadership 332
14.3.2.3 Family decision making 333
14.3.2.4 Buying roles 333
14.3.2.5 Level of decision-making 333
14.3.2.6 Buying new products 334
14.3.3 Criteria and product evaluation 335
14.3.4 Purchase decision 337
14.3.4.1 Purchase risk 337
14.3.5 Post-purchase behavior/decision 339
14.3.5.1 Satisfaction 339
14.3.5.2 Loyalty and commitment 339
14.3.5.3 Criticism and complaints 340
14.3.5.4 Product disposal 341
14.3.6 Beyond the purchase decision 341
14.3.6.1 Memories and meanings 341
14.3.6.2 Emotions and feelings 342
Summary 343
Discussion points and questions 343
Case Study 14.1: Japanese tourist behavior 344
Case Study 14.2: Cultural infl uences on tourist behavior 344
Website links 345
Part 5 Cross-Cultural Comparison
CHATPER 15 Cultural differences among international societies 349
Introduction 349
15.1 Africa 349
15.2 Asia 350
15.3 Australia 357
15.4 Europe 359
15.4.1 Important European values 359
15.5 India 364
15.6 Latin America 365
15.7 Middle East 366
15.8 North America 368
Summary 369
xiv Contents