Industrial Waste Treatment Handbook

Industrial Waste Treatment Handbook

Industrial Waste Treatment Handbook

Frank Woodard, Ph.D., P.E.,

President

Copyright © 2001 by Butterworth–Heinemann

A member of the Reed Elsevier group

All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,

electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Recognizing the importance of preserving what has been written, Butterworth–Heinemann prints its books on acid-free

paper whenever possible.

Butterworth–Heinemann supports the efforts of American Forests and the Global ReLeaf program in its

campaign for the betterment of trees, forests, and our environment.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Woodard, Frank, 1939

Industrial waste treatment handbook/Frank Woodard

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and indexes.

ISBN 0-7506-7317-6

1. Factory and trade waste—Management—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Sewage—Purification—Handbooks, manuals,

etc. 3. Industries—Environmental

TD897.W67 2000]

628.4—dc21

00-044448

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

The publisher offers special discounts on bulk orders of this book.

For information, please contact:

Manager of Special Sales

Butterworth–Heinemann

225 Wildwood Avenue

Woburn, MA 01801-2041

Tel: 781-904-2500

Fax: 781-904-2620

For information on all Butterworth–Heinemann publications available, contact our World Wide Web home page at:

http://www.bh.com

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Printed in the United States of America

v

Dedication

To Dr. James C. Buzzell, whose fascinating

anecdotes lured me into this profession; Dr. Otis

J. Sproul, by whose example I became accustomed to

and enjoyed hard work and a scholarly approach

to life; Dr. James E. Etzel, by whose example I

developed an insatiable desire to figure out better

ways to achieve treatment of industrial wastes; and

my (almost) lifelong best friend, Jean McNeary

Woodard, who deserves much of the credit for the

existence of this book.

1 Management of Industrial Wastes: Solids, Liquids, and Gases.................... 1

1.1 Management of Industrial Wastewater ................................................................................ 1

1.2 O&M Costs........................................................................................................................... 10

1.3 Management of Solid Wastes from Industries ..................................................................... 18

1.4 Management of Discharges to the Air.................................................................................. 20

1.5 Bibliography ......................................................................................................................... 28

2 Fundamentals .................................................................................................... 29

2.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 29

2.2 Characteristics of Industrial Wastewater.............................................................................. 29

2.3 The Polar Properties of Water ............................................................................................. 30

2.4 Electrical and Thermodynamic Stability ............................................................................... 33

2.5 Chemical Structure and Polarity of Water............................................................................ 36

2.6 Hydrogen Bonding ............................................................................................................... 37

2.7 Polar Solvents versus Nonpolar Solvents „ True Solutions.................................................. 38

2.8 Emulsification....................................................................................................................... 40

2.9 Colloidal Suspensions.......................................................................................................... 43

2.10 Mixtures Made Stable by Chelating Agents ....................................................................... 44

2.11 Summary............................................................................................................................ 44

2.12 Examples ........................................................................................................................... 45

2.13 Bibliography ....................................................................................................................... 48

3 Laws and Regulations....................................................................................... 49

3.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 49

3.2 History of Permitting and Reporting..................................................................................... 49

3.3 Requirements....................................................................................................................... 49

3.4 Water Pollution Control Laws............................................................................................... 50

3.5 Groundwater Pollution Control Laws ................................................................................... 52

3.6 Air Pollution Control Laws.................................................................................................... 55

3.7 Bibliography ......................................................................................................................... 60

4 Wastes from Industries ..................................................................................... 61

4.1 Chemical Descaling............................................................................................................. 61

4.2 Degreasing........................................................................................................................... 62

4.3 Rinsing................................................................................................................................. 64

4.4 Electroplating of Tin............................................................................................................. 65

4.5 The Copper Forming Industry .............................................................................................. 74

4.6 Prepared Frozen Foods ....................................................................................................... 77

4.7 Wastes From De-inking ....................................................................................................... 86

4.8 Die Casting: Aluminum, Zinc, and Magnesium .................................................................... 93

4.9 Anodizing and Alodizing....................................................................................................... 99

4.10 Production and Processing of Coke................................................................................... 103

4.11 The Wine-Making Industry ................................................................................................. 107

4.12 The Synthetic Rubber Industry .......................................................................................... 110

4.13 The Soft Drink Bottling Industry ......................................................................................... 119

4.14 Production and Processing of Beef, Pork, and Other Sources of Red Meat ..................... 124

4.15 Rendering of By-Products from the Processing of Meat, Poultry, and Fish....................... 130

4.16 The Manufacture of Lead Acid Batteries............................................................................ 138

4.17 Bibliography ....................................................................................................................... 144

5 Industrial Stormwater Management................................................................. 149

5.1 General ................................................................................................................................ 149

5.2 Federal Stormwater Regulations ......................................................................................... 149

5.3 Prevention of Groundwater Contamination.......................................................................... 151

5.4 Stormwater Segregation, Collection, Retention, and Treatment.......................................... 152

5.5 Design Storm ....................................................................................................................... 152

5.6 System Failure Protection.................................................................................................... 153

5.7 Stormwater Retention .......................................................................................................... 153

5.8 Stormwater Treatment ......................................................................................................... 153

5.9 Stormwater as a Source of Process Water Makeup ............................................................ 154

5.10 Bibliography ....................................................................................................................... 165

6 Wastes Characterization: The Wastes Characterization Study, Wastes

Audit, and the Environmental Audit.................................................................... 166

6.1 Wastes Characterization Study............................................................................................ 166

6.2 Wastes Audit........................................................................................................................ 169

6.3 Environmental Audit............................................................................................................. 172

6.4 Characteristics of Industrial Wastewater.............................................................................. 179

6.5 Characteristics of Discharges to the Air............................................................................... 192

6.6 Sample Analysis .................................................................................................................. 198

6.7 Ambient Air Sampling .......................................................................................................... 198

6.8 Characteristics of Solid Waste Streams from Industries...................................................... 201

6.9 Bibliography ......................................................................................................................... 205

7 Pollution Prevention.......................................................................................... 208

Findings and Policy .................................................................................................................... 208

7.1 General Approach................................................................................................................ 209

7.2 Source Reduction ................................................................................................................ 212

7.3 The Waste Audit .................................................................................................................. 215

7.4 Benefits of Pollution Prevention ........................................................................................... 216

7.5 Bibliography ......................................................................................................................... 216

8 Methods for Treating Wastewaters from Industry.......................................... 219

8.1 General ................................................................................................................................ 219

8.2 Principle and Nonprinciple Treatment Mechanisms............................................................. 220

8.3 Waste Equalization .............................................................................................................. 223

8.4 pH Control............................................................................................................................ 227

8.5 Chemical Methods of Wastewater Treatment...................................................................... 230

8.6 Biological Methods of Wastewater Treatment ..................................................................... 255

8.7 Development of Design Equations for Biological Treatment of Industrial Wastes ............... 256

8.8 Physical Methods of Wastewater Treatment ....................................................................... 322

8.9 Bibliography ......................................................................................................................... 394

9 Treatment and Disposal of Solid Wastes from Industry ................................ 397

9.1 Characterization of Solid Wastes ......................................................................................... 398

9.2 The Solid Waste Landfill ...................................................................................................... 400

9.3 Solid Waste Incineration ...................................................................................................... 409

9.4 The Process of Composting Industrial Wastes .................................................................... 421

9.5 Solidification and Stabilization of Industrial Solid Wastes .................................................... 427

9.6 Bibliography ......................................................................................................................... 433

10 Methods for Treating Air Discharges from Industry .................................... 437

10.1 Reduction at the Source .................................................................................................... 437

10.2 Containment....................................................................................................................... 437

10.3 Treatment........................................................................................................................... 438

10.4 Bibliography ....................................................................................................................... 456

Index ...................................................................................................................... 461

ix

Preface

This book has been developed with the inten￾tion of providing an updated primary reference

for environmental managers working in indus￾try, environmental engineering consultants,

graduate students in environmental engineer￾ing, and government agency employees

concerned with wastes from industries. It pre￾sents an explanation of the fundamental

mechanisms by which pollutants become dis￾solved or suspended in water or air, then builds

on this knowledge to explain how different

treatment processes work, how they can be

optimized, and how one would go about effi￾ciently selecting candidate treatment processes.

Examples from the recent work history of

Woodard & Curran, as well as other environ￾mental engineering and science consultants,

are presented to illustrate both the approach

used in solving various environmental quality

problems and the step-by-step design of facili￾ties to implement the solutions. Where permis￾sion was granted, the industry involved in each

of these examples is identified by name. Other￾wise, no name was given to the industry, and

the industry has been identified only as to type

of industry and size. In all cases, the actual

numbers and all pertinent information have

been reproduced as they occurred, with the

intent of providing accurate illustrations of

how environmental quality problems have been

solved by one of the leading consultants in the

field of industrial wastes management.

This book is intended to fulfill the need for

an updated source of information on the char￾acteristics of wastes from numerous types of

industries, how the different types of wastes are

most efficiently treated, the mechanisms

involved in treatment, and the design process

itself. In many cases, “tricks” that enable lower

cost treatment are presented. These “tricks”

have been developed through many years of

experience and have not been generally avail￾able except by word of mouth.

The chapter on laws and regulations is pre￾sented as a summary as of the date stated in the

chapter itself and/or the addendum that is

issued periodically by the publisher. For infor￾mation on the most recent addendum, please

call the publisher or Woodard & Curran’s

office in Portland, Maine, at (207) 774-2112.

x

Acknowledgments

This work was produced over a period of more

than five years; during that time, a very large

number of individuals, corporations, and various

business organizations contributed significant

material. I have tried to cite each contributor,

and I apologize mightily if I have missed one or

more. Thus, I extend heartfelt gratitude and

acknowledgement to:

Adam H. Steinman; Aeration Technologies,

Inc.; R. Gary Gilbert; Albert M. Presgraves;

Andy Miller; Claire P. Betze; Connie Bogard;

Connie Gipson; Dennis Merrill; Dr. Steven

E. Woodard; Geoffrey D. Pellechia; George

Abide; George W. Bloom; Henri J. Vincent; Dr.

Hugh J. Campbell; J. Alastair Lough; Janet

Robinson; Dr. James E. Etzel; James

D. Ekedahl; Karen L. Townsend; Katahdin

Analytical Services; Keith A. Weisenberger;

Kurt R. Marston; Michael Harlos; Michael

J. Curato; Patricia A. Proux-Lough; Paul

Bishop; Randy E. Tome; Eric P. King; Ray￾mond G. Pepin; Robert W. Severance; Steven

N. Whipple; Steven Smock; Susan G. Stevens;

Terry Rinehart; and Thora Knakkergaard, all of

whom contributed text or verbal information

from which I freely drew, either word-for-word

or by way of paraphrase. I extend special

thanks to Adam Steinman, Esq., who provided

text and verbal information regarding laws,

regulations and environmental audits.

1

1 Management of Industrial

Wastes: Solids, Liquids, and Gases

The approach used to develop systems to treat

and dispose of industrial wastes is distinctly

different from the approach used for municipal

wastes. There is a lot of similarity in the char￾acteristics of wastes from one municipality, or

one region, to another. Because of this, the best

approach to designing a treatment system for

municipal wastes is to analyze the performance

characteristics of many existing municipal sys￾tems and deduce an optimal set of design

parameters for the system under consideration.

Emphasis is placed on the analysis of other sys￾tems, rather than on the waste stream under

consideration. In the case of industrial waste,

however, few industrial plants have a high

degree of similarity between products pro￾duced and wastes generated. Therefore,

emphasis is placed on analysis of the wastes

under consideration, rather than on what is tak￾ing place at other industrial locations. This is

not to say that there is little value in analyzing

the performance of treatment systems at other,

more or less similar, industrial locations. Quite

the opposite is true. It is simply a matter of

emphasis.

Wastes from industries are customarily clas￾sified as liquid wastes, solid wastes, or air pol￾lutants, and often the three are managed by

different people or departments. The three sep￾arate categories are regulated by separate and

distinct bodies of laws and regulations, and his￾torically, public and governmental emphasis

has moved from one category to another from

one time period to another. The fact is, how￾ever, that the three categories of wastes are

closely interrelated, both as they impact on the

environment and as they are generated and

managed by individual industrial facilities.

Solid wastes disposed of in the ground can

influence the quality of groundwater and

surface waters by way of leachate entering the

groundwater and traveling with it through the

ground, then entering a surface water body

with groundwater recharge. Volatile organics in

that recharge water can contaminate the air. Air

pollutants can fall out to become surface water

or groundwater pollutants, and water pollutants

can infiltrate into the ground or volatilize into

the air.

Waste treatment processes can also transfer

substances from one of the three waste catego￾ries to one or both of the others. Air pollutants

can be removed from an air discharge by means

of a water solution scrubber. The waste scrub￾ber solution must then be managed to enable it

to be discarded within compliance with appli￾cable water regulations. Airborne particulates

can be removed from an air discharge using a

bag house, thus creating a solid waste to be

managed. On still a third level, waste treatment

or disposal systems themselves can directly

impact on the quality of air, water, or ground.

Activated sludge aeration tanks are very effec￾tive in causing volatilization of substances

from wastewater. Failed landfills can be potent

polluters of both groundwater and surface

water.

The total spectrum of industrial wastes, then,

must be managed as substances resulting from

a system of interrelated activities. Materials

balances must be tracked, and overall cost

effectiveness must be kept in focus.

Management of Industrial Wastewater

With respect to industrial wastewater, Figure

1-1 illustrates the approach for developing a

well-operating, cost-effective treatment system.

The first step is to gain familiarity with

the manufacturing processes themselves. This

2 Industrial Waste Treatment Handbook

Figure 1-1 Approach for developing an industrial waste￾water treatment system.

usually starts with a tour of the facility, and

then progresses through a review of the litera￾ture and interviews with knowledgeable

people. The objective is to gain an understand￾ing of how wastewater is produced, for two

reasons. The first is to enable an informed and

therefore effective wastes reduction, or minimi￾zation (pollution prevention) program; the

second is to enable proper choice of candidate

treatment technologies.

Analysis of Manufacturing Processes

One of the first steps in the analysis of manu￾facturing processes is to develop a block

diagram that shows how each manufacturing

process contributes wastewater to the treatment

facility, as is illustrated in Figure 1-2. In Figure

1-2, a block represents each step in the manu￾facturing process. The supply of water to each

point of use is represented on the left side of

the block diagram. Wastewater that flows away

from each point of wastewater generation is

shown on the right side.

Figure 1-2 is representative of the processes

involved in producing finished woven fabric

from an intermediate product of the textile

industry. The “raw material” for this process is

first subjected to a process called “desizing,”

during which the substances used to size the

woven greige goods, or raw fabric, are

removed. The process uses sulfuric acid; there￾fore, the liquid waste from this process would

be expected to have a low pH as well as contain

whatever substances were used as sizing. For

instance, if starch were the substance used to

size the fabric, the liquid waste from the desiz￾ing process would be expected to exhibit a high

biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).

As the knowledge became available, from

the industry’s records, if possible, or from mea￾surements taken as part of a wastewater charac￾terization study, the flow rates, total quantities

for a typical processing day, upper and lower

limits, and characteristics such as BOD, chemi￾cal oxygen demand (COD), total suspended

solids (TSS), total dissolved solids (TDS),

and specific chemicals would be indicated on

the block diagram. Each individual process

Management of Industrial Wastes: Solids, Liquids, and Gases 3

undergone during the industrial process would

be developed and shown on the block diagram,

as illustrated in Figure 1-2.

Wastes Minimization and Wastes

Characterization Study

After becoming sufficiently familiar with the

manufacturing processes as they relate to

wastewater generation, the design team should

institute a wastes minimization program

(actually part of a pollution prevention pro￾gram) as described in Chapter 7. Then, after the

wastes reduction program has become fully

implemented, a wastewater characterization

study should be carried out, as described in

Chapter 6.

Figure 1-2 Typical woven fabric finishing process flow diagram. (From the EPA Development Document for the Textile

Mills Industry.)

4 Industrial Waste Treatment Handbook

The ultimate purpose of the wastewater

characterization study is to provide the

design team with accurate and complete

information on which to base the design of

the treatment system. Both quantitative and

qualitative data are needed to properly size

the facility and to select the most appropriate

treatment technologies.

Often, enough new information about mate￾rials usage, water use efficiency, and wastes

generation is learned during the wastewater

characterization study to warrant a second level

of wastes minimization effort. This second part

of the wastes minimization program should be

fully implemented, and its effectiveness should

be verified by more sampling and analyses,

which amounts to an extension of the wastewa￾ter characterization study.

A cautionary note is appropriate here con￾cerning maintenance of the wastes minimiza￾tion program. If, after implementation of the

wastes minimization program, operation of the

manufacturing facilities and/or housekeeping

practices loses attention and becomes lax so

that wastewater increases in volume, strength,

or both, the treatment facility will be underde￾signed and will be overloaded at the start. It is

extremely important that realistic goals be set

and maintained for the wastes minimization

program, and that the design team, as well as

the industry’s management team, are fully

aware of the consequences of overloading the

treatment system.

Treatment Objectives

After the volume, strength, and substance char￾acteristics of the wastewater have been

established, the treatment objectives must be

determined. These objectives depend on where

the wastewater is to be sent after treatment. If

the treated wastewater is discharged to another

treatment facility, such as a regional facility or

a municipal treatment system, pretreatment

requirements must be complied with. As a

minimum, the Federal Pretreatment Guide￾lines issued by the Environmental Protection

Agency (EPA) and published in the Federal

Register must be complied with. Some

municipal or regional treatment facilities have

pretreatment standards that are more stringent

than those required by the EPA.

If the treated effluent is discharged to an

open body of water, then a National Pollut￾ant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)

permit, plus a permit issued by the appropri￾ate state agency, must be complied with. In

all cases, Categorical Standards issued by the

Federal EPA apply, and it is necessary to

work closely with one or more government

agencies while developing the treatment

objectives.

Selection of Candidate Technologies

Once the wastewater characteristics and the

treatment objectives are known, candidate tech￾nologies for treatment can be selected.

Rationale for selection is discussed in detail in

Chapter 8. The selection should be based on

one or more of the following:

• Successful application to a similar waste￾water

• Knowledge of chemistry, biochemistry, and

microbiology

• Knowledge of what technologies are avail￾able, as well as knowledge of their

respective capabilities and limitations

Then, bench scale investigations should be

conducted to determine technical as well as

financial feasibility.

Bench Scale Investigations

Bench scale investigations quickly and effi￾ciently determine the technical feasibility and

a rough approximation of the financial feasi￾bility of a given technology. Bench scale

studies range from rough experiments in

which substances are mixed in a beaker and

results are observed almost immediately, to

rather sophisticated continuous flow studies in

which a refrigerated reservoir contains repre￾sentative industrial wastewater, which is

pumped through a series of miniature treat￾ment devices that are models of the full-size

equipment. Typical bench scale equipment

Management of Industrial Wastes: Solids, Liquids, and Gases 5

includes the six-place stirrer shown in

Figure 1-3(a), small columns for ion exchange

resins, activated carbon, or sand, shown in

Figure 1-3(b), “block aerators,” shown in

Figures 1-3(c) and (d), for performing micro￾biological treatability studies, and any number

of custom-designed devices for testing the

technical feasibility of given treatment

technologies.

Because of scale-up problems, it is seldom

advisable to proceed directly from the results

of bench scale investigations to design of the

full-scale wastewater treatment system. Only in

cases for which extensive experience exists

with both the type of wastewater being treated

and the technology and types of equipment to

be used can this approach be justified. Other￾wise, pilot scale investigations should be

conducted for each technology that appears to

be a legitimate candidate for reliable, cost￾effective treatment.

In the absence of pilot scale investigations,

the design team is obliged to be conservative in

estimating design criteria for the treatment sys￾tem. The likely result is that the cost for the

facility will be greater than the total cost for the

pilot scale investigations plus the treatment

facility that would have been designed using

the information that would have been devel￾oped from the pilot scale investigations. Said

another way, the objective of pilot scale investi￾gations is to develop the data necessary to

determine the minimum size and least costly

system of equipment to enable the design of a

treatment system that will reliably meet its

intended purpose.

Figure 1-3(a) Photograph of a six-place stirrer. (Courtesy of ©Phipps & Bird, Inc., 2000.)