Heavy Metals in the Environment

HEAVY METALS

IN THE

ENVIRONMENT

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ADVANCES IN INDUSTRIAL AND HAZARDOUS

WASTES TREATMENT SERIES

Advances in Hazardous Industrial Waste Treatment (2009)

edited by Lawrence K. Wang, Nazih K. Shammas, and Yung-Tse Hung

Waste Treatment in the Metal Manufacturing, Forming, Coating,

and Finishing Industries (2009)

edited by Lawrence K. Wang, Nazih K. Shammas, and Yung-Tse Hung

Heavy Metals in the Environment (2009)

edited by Lawrence K. Wang, J. Paul Chen, Nazih K. Shammas,

and Yung-Tse Hung

RELATED TITLES

Handbook of Industrial and Hazardous Wastes Treatment (2004)

edited by Lawrence K. Wang, Yung-Tse Hung, Howard H. Lo,

and Constantine Yapijakis

Waste Treatment in the Food Processing Industry (2006)

edited by Lawrence K. Wang, Yung-Tse Hung, Howard H. Lo,

and Constantine Yapijakis

Waste Treatment in the Process Industries (2006)

edited by Lawrence K. Wang, Yung-Tse Hung, Howard H. Lo,

and Constantine Yapijakis

Hazardous Industrial Waste Treatment (2007)

edited by Lawrence K. Wang, Yung-Tse Hung, Howard H. Lo,

and Constantine Yapijakis

Handbook of Industrial and Hazardous Wastes Treatment, Volume II (2010)

edited by Lawrence K. Wang, Yung-Tse Hung, and Nazih K. Shammas

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v

Contents

Preface ......................................................................................................................................... vii

Editors .......................................................................................................................................... ix

Contributors ................................................................................................................................ xi

Chapter 1 Metal Research Trends in the Environmental Field ................................................. 1

Yuh-Shan Ho and Mohammad I. El-Khaiary

Chapter 2 Toxicity and Sources of Pb, Cd, Hg, Cr, As, and Radionuclides

in the Environment ................................................................................................. 13

Ghinwa M. Naja and Bohumil Volesky

Chapter 3 Environmental Behavior and Effects of Engineered Metal

and Metal Oxide Nanoparticles .............................................................................. 63

Bernd Nowack

Chapter 4 Heavy Metal Removal with Exopolysaccharide-Producing Cyanobacteria .......... 89

Roberto De Philippis and Ernesto Micheletti

Chapter 5 Environmental Geochemistry of High-Arsenic Aquifer Systems ....................... 123

Yanxin Wang and Yamin Deng

Chapter 6 Nanotechnology Application in Metal Ion Adsorption ........................................ 155

Xiangke Wang and Changlun Chen

Chapter 7 Biosorption of Metals onto Granular Sludge ....................................................... 201

Shu Guang Wang, Xue Fei Sun, Wen Xin Gong, and Yue Ma

Chapter 8 Arsenic Pollution: Occurrence, Distribution, and Technologies .......................... 225

Huijuan Liu, Ruiping Liu, Jiuhui Qu, and Gaosheng Zhang

Chapter 9 Treatment of Metal-Bearing Effluents: Removal and Recovery .......................... 247

Ghinwa M. Naja and Bohumil Volesky

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vi Contents

Chapter 10 Management and Treatment of Acid Pickling Wastes Containing

Heavy Metals ........................................................................................................ 293

Lawrence K. Wang, Veysel Eroglu, and Ferruh Erturk

Chapter 11 Treatment and Management of Metal Finishing Industry Wastes ....................... 315

Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang

Chapter 12 Recycling and Disposal of Hazardous Solid Wastes Containing Heavy

Metals and Other Toxic Substances ..................................................................... 361

Lawrence K. Wang

Chapter 13 Management and Removal of Heavy Metals from Contaminated Soil ............... 381

Nazih K. Shammas

Chapter 14 Remediation of Metal Finishing Brownfield Sites ............................................... 431

Nazih K. Shammas

Chapter 15 Control, Management, and Treatment of Metal Emissions from

Motor Vehicles ..................................................................................................... 475

Rajasekhar Balasubramanian, Jun He, and Lawrence K. Wang

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vii

Preface

Environmental managers, engineers, and scientists who have had experience with industrial and

hazardous waste management problems have noted the need for a handbook series that is compre￾hensive in its scope, directly applicable to daily waste management problems of specifi c industries,

and widely acceptable by practicing environmental professionals and educators. Taylor & Francis

and CRC Press have developed this timely book series entitled Advances in Industrial and

Hazardous Wastes Treatment, which emphasizes in-depth presentation of environmental pollution

sources, waste characteristics, control technologies, management strategies, facility innovations,

process alternatives, costs, case histories, effl uent standards, and future trends for each industrial or

commercial operation, and in-depth presentation of methodologies, technologies, alternatives,

regional effects, and global effects of each important industrial pollution control practice that may

be applied to all industries.

Heavy Metals in the Environment is the third book in the Advances in Industrial and Hazardous

Wastes Treatment series. The importance of metals, such as lead, chromium, cadmium, zinc, cop￾per, nickel, iron, and mercury, is discussed in detail. They could be important constituents of most

living animals, plants, and microorganisms, and many nonliving substances in the environment.

Some of them are essential for growth of biological and microbiological lives. Their absence could

limit growth of small microorganisms to large plants or animals. However, the presence of any of

these heavy metals in excessive quantities will be harmful to human beings, and will interfere with

many benefi cial uses of the environment due to their toxicity and mobility. Therefore, it is fre￾quently desirable to measure and control the heavy metal concentrations in the environment.

In a deliberate effort to complement other industrial waste treatment and hazardous waste

management texts published by Taylor & Francis and CRC Press, this book, Heavy Metals in the

Environment, covers the important results in research of metals in environment. In the fi rst two

chapters, the recent research trends and the toxicity and sources of heavy metals are covered. The

processes and mechanisms on metals in the environment are covered in Chapters 3–7; they are the

environmental behavior and effects of engineered metal and metal oxide nanoparticles, environ￾mental geochemistry of high arsenic aquifer systems, nanotechnology application in metal ion

adsorption, biosorption of metals, and heavy metal removal by exopolysaccharide-producing

cyanobacteria. In Chapters 8–14, technologies for metal treatment and management are addressed.

These cover technologies for metal bearing effl uents, metal contained solid wastes, metal fi nishing

industry wastes, metal fi nishing brownfi eld sites, and arsenic contaminated groundwater streams.

Metal in the atmosphere can greatly affect health of human beings. Chapter 15 addresses control,

treatment, and management of metal emissions from motor vehicles.

Special efforts were made to invite experts to contribute chapters in their own areas of expertise.

Since the area of hazardous industrial waste treatment is very broad, no one can claim to be an

expert in all heavy metals and their related industries; collective contributions are better than a

single author’s presentation for a book of this nature.

This book, Heavy Metals in the Environment, is to be used as a college textbook as well as a

reference book for the environmental professional. It features the major hazardous heavy metals in

air, water, land, and facilities that have signifi cant effects on the public health and the environment.

Professors, students, and researchers in environmental, civil, chemical, sanitary, mechanical, and

public health engineering and science will fi nd valuable educational materials here. The extensive

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viii Preface

bibliographies for each heavy metal or metal-related industrial waste treatment or practice should

be invaluable to environmental managers or researchers who need to trace, follow, duplicate, or

improve on a specifi c industrial hazardous waste treatment practice.

A successful modern heavy metal control program for a particular industry will include not only

traditional water pollution control but also air pollution control, soil conservation, site remediation,

groundwater protection, public health management, solid waste disposal, and combined industrial–

municipal heavy metal waste management. In fact, it should be a total environmental control pro￾gram. Another intention of this handbook is to provide technical and economical information on the

development of the most feasible total heavy metal control program that can benefi t both industry

and local municipalities. Frequently, the most economically feasible methodology is a combined

industrial–municipal heavy metal management.

Lawrence K. Wang, New York

Jiaping Paul Chen, Singapore

Yung-Tse Hung, Ohio

Nazih K. Shammas, Massachusetts

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ix

Editors

Lawrence K. Wang has over 25 years of experience in facility design, plant construction, operation,

and management. He has expertise in water supply, air pollution control, solid waste disposal, water

resources, waste treatment, hazardous waste management, and site remediation. He is a retired

dean/director of both the Lenox Institute of Water Technology and Krofta Engineering Corpo￾ration, Lenox, Massachusetts, and a retired vice president of Zorex Corporation, Newtonville,

New York. Dr. Wang is the author of over 700 technical papers and 19 books, and is credited with

24 U.S. patents and 5 foreign patents. He received his BSCE degree from the National Cheng-Kung

University, Taiwan, his MS degrees from both the Missouri University of Science and Technology

and the University of Rhode Island and his PhD degree from Rutgers University, New Jersey.

Jiaping Paul Chen is an associate professor of environmental science and engineering at the

National University of Singapore. His research interests are physicochemical treatment of water and

wastewater and modeling. He has published more than 80 journal papers and book chapters. He has

received various honors and awards, including Guest Professor of the Hua Zhong University of

Science and Technology, and Shandong University of China, and Distinguished Overseas Chinese

Young Scholar of National Natural Science Foundation of China. He is recognized as an author of

highly cited papers (chemistry and engineering) of ISI Web of Knowledge. Professor Chen received

his ME degree from the Tsinghua University, Beijing and his PhD degree from the Georgia Institute

of Technology of Atlanta, Georgia.

Yung-Tse Hung has been a professor of civil engineering at Cleveland State University since 1981.

He is a Fellow of the American Society of Civil Engineers. He has taught at 16 universities in eight

countries. His primary research interests and publications have been involved with biological waste￾water treatment, industrial water pollution control, industrial waste treatment, and municipal waste￾water treatment. He is now credited with over 450 publications and presentations on water and

wastewater treatment. Dr. Hung received his BSCE and MSCE degrees from the National Cheng￾Kung University, Taiwan, and his PhD degree from the University of Texas at Austin. He is the

editor of International Journal of Environment and Waste Management, International Journal of

Environmental Engineering, and International Journal of Environmental Engineering Science.

Nazih K. Shammas has been an environmental expert, professor, and consultant for over

40 years. He is an ex-dean and director of the Lenox Institute of Water Technology, and advisor to

Krofta Engineering Corporation, Lenox, Massachusetts. Dr. Shammas is the author of over 250

publications and eight books in the fi eld of environmental engineering. He has experience in envi￾ronmental planning, curriculum development, teaching and scholarly research, and expertise in

water quality control, wastewater reclamation and reuse, physicochemical and biological treatment

processes, and water and wastewater systems. He received his BE degree from the American

University of Beirut, Lebanon, his MS from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and his

PhD from the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor.

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xi

Contributors

Rajasekhar Balasubramanian

Division of Environmental Science and

Engineering

National University of Singapore

Singapore

Changlun Chen

Institute of Plasma Physics

Chinese Academy of Science

Beijing, China

Yamin Deng

School of Environmental Studies and

MOE Key Laboratory of Biogeology

and Environmental Geology

China University of Geosciences

Wuhan, China

Roberto De Philippis

Department of Agricultural Biotechnology

University of Florence

Florence, Italy

Mohammad I. El-Khaiary

Chemical Engineering Department

Alexandria University

Alexandria, Egypt

Veysel Eroglu

Minister of Environment and Forestry

Istanbul Technical University

Istanbul, Turkey

Ferruh Erturk

Yıldız Technical University

Istanbul, Turkey

Wen Xin Gong

School of Environmental Science and

Engineering

Shandong University

Shandong, China

Jun He

Division of Environmental Engineering

and Science

National University of Singapore

Singapore

Yuh-Shan Ho

Department of Environmental

Sciences

Peking University

Beijing, China

Huijuan Liu

Research Center for Eco-Environmental

Sciences

Chinese Academy of Sciences

Beijing, China

Ruiping Liu

Research Center for Eco-Environmental

Sciences

Chinese Academy of Sciences

Beijing, China

Yue Ma

School of Environmental Science and

Engineering

Shandong University

Shandong, China

Ernesto Micheletti

Department of Agricultural

Biotechnology

University of Florence

Florence, Italy

Ghinwa M. Naja

Department of Chemical

Engineering

McGill University

Montreal, Quebec, Canada

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xii Contributors

Bernd Nowack

Materials, Products and the

Environment Group

Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials

Testing and Research

St. Gallen, Switzerland

Jiuhui Qu

Research Center for Eco-Environmental

Sciences

Chinese Academy of Sciences

Beijing, China

Nazih K. Shammas

Lenox Institute of Water Technology

Krofta Engineering Corporation

Lenox, Massachusetts

Xue Fei Sun

School of Environmental Science

and Engineering

Shandong University

Shandong, China

Bohumil Volesky

Department of Chemical Engineering

McGill University

Montreal, Quebec, Canada

Laurence K. Wang

Krofta Engineering Corporation

Zorex Corporation

Lenox Institute of Water Technology

Lenox, Massachusetts

Shu Guang Wang

School of Environmental Science

and Engineering

Shandong University

Shandong, China

Xiangke Wang

Institute of Plasma Physics

Chinese Academy of Science

Beijing, China

Yanxin Wang

School of Environmental Studies and

MOE Key Laboratory of Biogeology

and Environmental Geology

China University of Geosciences

Wuhan, China

Gaosheng Zhang

Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research

for Sustainable Development

Chinese Academy of Sciences

Shandong, China

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1

1 Metal Research Trends in the

Environmental Field

Yuh-Shan Ho and Mohammad I. El-Khaiary

CONTENTS

1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1

1.2 Data Sources and Methodology .......................................................................................... 2

1.3 Results and Discussion ....................................................................................................... 2

1.3.1 Language of Publication ......................................................................................... 2

1.3.2 Article Output and Distribution in Journals ........................................................... 3

1.3.3 Publication Performance: Countries, Institutes, and Authorship ........................... 3

1.3.4 Research Emphasis: Author Keywords and Keywords Plus ................................... 8

1.4 Conclusions ......................................................................................................................... 10

References .................................................................................................................................... 11

1.1 INTRODUCTION

It has long been known that, in the right concentrations, many metals are essential to life and eco￾systems [1–4]; chronic low exposures to metals can lead to severe environmental and health effects.

Similarly, in excess, these same metals can be poisonous [5–9]. The main metal threats are associ￾ated with heavy metals such as lead, arsenic, cadmium, and mercury. Unlike many organic pollut￾ants, which eventually degrade to carbon dioxide and water, heavy metals will tend to accumulate

in the environment, especially in lake, estuarine, or marine sediments [10]. Metals can also be trans￾ported from one environment compartment to another [11], which complicates the containment

and treatment problem.

Heavy metals are closely connected with environmental deterioration and the quality of human

life, and thus have aroused concern all over the world. More and more countries have signed treaties

to monitor and reduce heavy metal pollution [12]. Moreover, this fi eld of research has been receiving

increasing scientifi c attention due to its negative effects on life [9,10,13,14]; it was found that metals

accumulate in animal and plant cells, leading to severe negative effects. The transport and accumu￾lation of heavy metals by air [15], water [14,16], and soil [17,18] have also been a hot topic for

research. It was found that in some cases contamination was circulated on a global range. Another

related research topic was the monitoring of metal pollution and predicting critical levels and loads,

which distilled into national and international regulations such as the European Union’s Dangerous

Substances Directive [19], the U.S. EPA [20] for water, the EU Air Quality Framework Directive

[21], and the World Health Organization [22] for air.

A large body of research that deals with the treatment of metal pollution by different methods

such as adsorption [23–26], activated sludge [27,28], phytoextraction [29–32], electrokinetic meth￾ods [33], electroosmosis [34], and ion exchange [35] has also been published.

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2 Heavy Metals in the Environment

Today, researchers are carrying out more comprehensive studies on metal pollution, leading to

the unusual breadth of topics. Despite increasing interest, there have been few attempts at gathering

systematic data on the nature and extent of metal pollution research. Garfi eld indicated that recent

research focus could be detected by publication output [36]. A common research tool is the biblio￾metric method, which has already been widely applied to many fi elds of science and engineering.

Furthermore, the Science Citation Index (SCI), from the Institute for Scientifi c Information (ISI),

Web of Science databases, is the most important and frequently used source database of choice for

a broad review of scientifi c accomplishment [37–39].

1.2 DATA SOURCES AND METHODOLOGY

Data were based on the online version of the SCI, Web of Science. SCI is a multidisciplinary data￾base of the ISI, Philadelphia, USA. According to Journal Citation Reports (JCR), it indexes 6166

major journals with citation references across 172 scientifi c disciplines in 2006. One hundred and

ninety-fi ve journals listed in the three ISI subject categories of environmental engineering (n = 35),

environmental sciences (n = 144), and water resources (n = 57) were considered in this study. The

online version of SCI was searched under the keyword “metal or metals” to compile a bibliography

of all papers related to metal research from 1991 to 2006. Articles originating from England,

Scotland, Northern Ireland, and Wales were reclassifi ed as being from the United Kingdom.

Besides, the reported impact factor (IF) of each journal was obtained from the 2006 JCR.

Collaboration type was determined by the addresses of the authors, where the term “single

country” was assigned if the researchers’ addresses were from the same country. The term “inter￾national collaboration” was assigned to those articles that were coauthored by researchers from

multiple countries.

1.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The total number of publications that met the selection criteria was 25,449. These publications were

divided into 13 document types. The most frequently used document type (96%) was articles

(24,409), followed distantly by reviews (609; 2.39%). Other document types of less signifi cance

were notes (108; 0.42%), letters (108; 0.42%), and editorial material (104; 0.41%). Since peer-reviewed

journal articles represent the majority of documents within this fi eld, 24,409 articles were further

analyzed in this study. The emphasis of the following discussion is to determine the pattern of sci￾entifi c production; research activity trends that consist of authorship, institutes, and countries; and

also the trends in the research subjects addressed.

1.3.1 LANGUAGE OF PUBLICATION

Written languages of all metal-related articles in the environmental fi eld were grouped. The results

showed that English had a clear monopoly, making up 99% of all article publications. Other lan￾guages were French (0.26%), German (0.25%), and Spanish (0.025%). French articles were pub￾lished in Environmental Technology (n = 32), Houille Blanche-Revue Internationale de l Eau

(n = 14), Water Quality Research Journal of Canada (n = 8), Journal of Environmental Engineering

and Science (n = 6), Water Research (n = 3), and Science of the Total Environment (n = 1). German

articles were published in Gefahrstoffe Reinhaltung der Luft (n = 34), Acta Hydrochimica et

Hydrobiologica (n = 27), and Isotopes in Environmental and Health Studies (n = 1). Only one jour￾nal published Spanish articles: Ingenieria Hidraulica en Mexico (n = 6). For all practical purposes,

English was the international language of choice in metal research, at least according to the SCI

database. We leave the debate of whether or not English was the lingua franca of international sci￾entifi c communication to other commentators [40].

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Metal Research Trends in the Environmental Field 3

1.3.2 ARTICLE OUTPUT AND DISTRIBUTION IN JOURNALS

Figure 1.1 shows the article output results from 1991 to 2006. The number of articles per year

increased from 550 in 1991 to 2871 in 2006, refl ecting the increasing interest in this fi eld of research.

More than 55% of the records were published during the period 2001–2006. In total, 24,409 articles

were published in 173 journals. Six core journals contained 34% of the total articles. Figure 1.2

shows the trend of article publication in these six journals from 1991 to 2006. It is noticed that

Applied Catalysis A—General rose from the sixth rank in 1991 to the fi rst rank in 2006; also

Chemosphere rose from the fi fth rank in 1991 to the second rank in 2006.

1.3.3 PUBLICATION PERFORMANCE: COUNTRIES, INSTITUTES, AND AUTHORSHIP

Among the 24,409 articles produced in 145 countries, the top 20 most active countries produced

23,062 articles (95%), whereas the remaining 125 countries produced 1347 articles. Table 1.1 shows

that the most active country was the United States (6081; 25%). The United States also produced the

most independent publications (4859; 24%). Moreover, the seven most industrialized countries (G7:

Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States) collectively

held the major portion (59%) of the world’s publication. Figures 1.3 and 1.4 show the trend of article

production in the top 10 countries from 1991 to 2006. The numbers of articles produced per year seem

to increase at similar rates for most countries, except for China (whose rank changed from tenth in

1991 to second in 2006) and Spain (whose rank changed from ninth in 2001 to third in 2006).

The top 20 most productive institutes are listed in Table 1.2. There are seven institutes from the

United States, three from Canada, two from China, and one each from Spain, Italy, France, Taiwan,

FIGURE 1.1 Publication outputs per year for the period 1991–2006.

550 624

703

1036 1020

1205 1269

1474 1459

1532

1777

1926

2155

2354

2454

2871

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

Year

Number of articles

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