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Handbook of Environment and Waste Management: Volume 2: Land and Groundwater Pollution Control
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HANDBOOK OF
ENVIRONMENT AND
WASTE MANAGEMENT
Land and Groundwater Pollution Control
Volume 2
8699 tp.indd 1 18/11/13 10:55 am
Also Published by World Scientific
Handbook of Environment and Waste Management
Volume 1: Air and Water Pollution Control
ISBN 978-981-4327-69-5
Handbook of Environment and Waste Management
Volume 2: Land and Groundwater Pollution Control
ISBN 978-981-4449-16-8
NEW JERSEY • LONDON • SINGAPORE • BEIJING • SHANGHAI • HONG KONG • TAIPEI • CHENNAI
World Scientific
HANDBOOK OF
ENVIRONMENT AND
WASTE MANAGEMENT
Land and Groundwater Pollution Control
Volume 2
edited by
Yung-Tse Hung
Cleveland State University, USA
Lawrence K Wang
Lenox Institute of Water Technology, USA
Nazih K Shammas
Lenox Institute of Water Technology, USA
8699 tp.indd 2 18/11/13 10:55 am
Published by
World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224
USA office: 27 Warren Street, Suite 401-402, Hackensack, NJ 07601
UK office: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE
Library of Congress Control Number: 2013956067
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
HANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENT AND WASTE MANAGEMENT
Volume 2: Land and Groundwater Pollution Control
Copyright © 2014 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system now known or to
be invented, without written permission from the publisher.
For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright Clearance Center,
Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. In this case permission to photocopy is not required from
the publisher.
ISBN 978-981-4449-16-8
In-house Editors: Dr. Ng Yan Hong/Amanda Yun
Typeset by Stallion Press
Email: [email protected]
Printed in Singapore
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DEDICATION
Professor William Wesley Eckenfelder, Jr., D. Sc., P.E., DEE
(November 15, 1926–March 28, 2010)
The editors of the Handbook of Environment and Waste Management dedicate this
volume to the loving memory of Professor William Wesley Eckenfelder, Jr. D. Sc.,
P.E., DEE, Distinguished Professor of Environment and Water Resources Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, the USA. Prof. Eckenfelder
passed away on March 28, 2010, in Nashville, Tennessee, the USA. He was 83. He
was born in NewYork City on November 15, 1926, and graduated from high school at
age 16. He received bachelors’ degree in civil engineering from Manhattan College
in 1946. He earned a masters’ degree in sanitary engineering from Pennsylvania
State University in 1948, and a masters’ degree in civil engineering from New York
University in 1954. He also pursued post-graduate studies at North Carolina State
University and Pennsylvania State University. He was deemed the godfather of industrial wastewater management by his colleagues, former students, and peers. He was
an Environmental Engineering Professor at Manhattan College, NewYork, the USA,
the University of Texas at Austin (1965–1969), Texas, the USA, and Vanderbilt
v
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vi Dedication
University (1969–1989), Nashville, Tennessee, the USA. He was the best professor
and mentor to his students. His office door is always open for his students. He was
very caring and helpful to his students. He has touched and changed the lives of
his students. He will be missed by all of his students. He was the Ph.D. dissertation
supervisor of Prof. Yung-Tse Hung, the editor of Handbook of Environmental and
Management. Prof. Hung received excellent preparation for his university teaching
career from Prof. Eckenfelder. Prof. Hung was Prof. Eckenfelder’s last Ph.D. student
at the University of Texas atAustin in 1970 and has the same birthday of November 15
as of Prof. Eckenfelder.
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PREFACE
The environmental system has existed from the earliest time that life in its
primitive forms appeared on this planet of earth. Before the civilization, many
animal and plant species emerged, evolved, or become extinct, as environmental
system changed. The earth generally purified itself by its unique self-purification
process and the availability of natural resources remained unchanged. Civilization
has created environmental pollution, especially after the industrial revolution.
Air, water, and land in some industrial and developing countries have been
heavily polluted to an unacceptable level that Mother Nature can no longer be
able to purify itself. As a result, the renewable resources, such as farm lands,
rain forests, surface water supplies, groundwater supplies, ocean/lake fisheries,
and watersheds, are contaminated by the human activities rapidly. The nonrenewable resources, such as coal, oil, natural gases, metallic ores, and rare nonmetallic ores, are consumed or wasted at an ever-increasing rate and will be
exhausted in a few decades, if proper conservation actions are not taken in a
timely manner. Radioactive pollution is extremely serious because the normally
renewable resources, such as land and groundwater, could become nonrenewable
and be almost forever gone, if contaminated by high-level radioactive wastes. Oil
and hazardous substances spills on land or in ocean may endanger the ecosystem
for a very long time. Destruction of ozone layer by the chlorinated hydrocarbons
will increase the dangerous UV exposure. Burning fossil fuels at the current
rate will cause global warming and climate changes, in turn, causes the chain
reactions of ice melting, land flooding, desert formation, hurricanes, tornadoes,
species extinction, ocean current diversion, and perhaps even arrival of another
ice age.
Once upon a time, fresh air, palatable water, and beautiful clean land were taken
by people for granted worldwide. In many heavily polluted regions now, drinking
bottle water instead of tap water has become routine. It would be horrible if one day
the human beings would face the situations that (a) the air is contaminated by toxic
substances, so we must breath air from the pressurized cylinders; (b) the ozone layer
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viii Preface
in the sky is destroyed, so we must all wear the sun glasses and special clothing
for protection of eye sight and skin, respectively, from the excessive UV lights;
(c) the surface and ground water resources are contaminated by acid rain, toxic
organics, and heavy metals, so we lose potable water supplies, fisheries, irrigation
values, or recreation values; (d) the ocean is polluted by oil spills and ocean waste
disposal, so we lose ocean fisheries, aquatic species, beautiful coastal areas, etc.;
(e) the land and groundwater are polluted by hazardous substances and solid wastes,
so the contaminated sites are no longer inhabitable; and (f) the continuous release
of green house gases to the air to cause global warming and climate changes, so we
lose lands, many animal and plant species, and may even lose human species if the
ice age arrives.
The two volumes of the Handbook of Environment and Waste Management
series have been developed to deal with the aforementioned environmental pollution
problems and to provide proper treatment and waste management solutions. Specifically, the entire handbook series is a comprehensive compilation of topics that are at
the forefront of many of the technical advances and practice in controlling pollution
in air, surface water, groundwater, and land. The text covers biological, physical,
chemical, agricultural, meteorological, medical, radioactive, and legal aspects of
environmental engineering. Each volume covers basic and advanced principles and
applications and includes figures, tables, examples, and case histories.
Internationally recognized authorities in the field of environment and waste
management contribute chapters in their own areas of expertise. The authors who
were invited to contribute to this handbook series include the environmental experts
from the USA, China, Malaysia, Jordan, Iran, Nigeria, Turkey, Brazil, India, Spain,
Cuba, Singapore, Ukraine, France, Australia, Taiwan, Canada, Egypt, Russia, and
Poland. The editors believe that the unified interdisciplinary approach presented in
the handbook is a logical step in the evolution of environmental pollution control and
hope that the handbook series becomes a one-stop reference source for readers to get
all necessary technical information on air, water, and land resource managements.
This particular book, Volume 2, Land and Groundwater Pollution Control, deals
with mainly with control technologies and methods for management of land and
groundwater resources and is a sister book to Volume 1, Air and Water Pollution
Control. This book (Volume 2) covers the subjects of biosolids management, sludge
management, solid waste disposal, landfill liners, beneficial reuse of waste products,
recycling of foundry sand as construction materials, stabilization of brown coal
fly ash using geopolymers, municipal solid waste recovery, reuse of solid wastes
as construction materials, biological methods for toxicity evaluation of wastes
and waste-amended soils, groundwater contamination at landfill site, remediation
of contaminated groundwater, radioactive pollution and control, plastics waste
management, and water utility sludge management.
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Preface ix
The sister book, Volume 1, Air and Water Pollution Control, deals mainly
with control technologies and methods for management of air and surface
water resources. The sister book introduces the subjects of air pollution and its
control, air quality modeling and prediction, air biofiltration for odor treatment,
drinking-water-associated pathology, wastewater disinfection, chemical and photochemical advanced oxidation processes, membrane separation for water and
wastewater treatment, municipal wastewater treatment and reuse, agricultural irrigation, combine sewer overflow treatment, storm water management, biological
wastewater treatment, aerobic granulation process, sequencing batch reactors, environmental impact assessment on aquatic pollution, decentralized sewage treatment
technologies, wetland waste treatment technologies, land waste treatment technologies, landfill leachate treatment and management, river and lake pollution
control, dye wastewater treatment, olive oil manufacturing waste treatment, medical
waste management, environmental enzyme technology, various microorganisms for
environmental biotechnology processes, and flotation technologies.
The editors are pleased to acknowledge the encouragement and support received
from their colleagues and the publisher during the conceptual stages of this endeavor.
We wish to thank the contributing authors for their time and effort and for having
patiently borne our reviews and numerous queries and comments. We are very
grateful to our respective families for their patience and understanding during some
rather trying times. The editors are especially indebted to Mrs. Kathleen Hung Li,
who is the daughter of Chief Editor Yung-Tse Hung, and was a manager of the
Texas Hospital Association, Austin, Texas, for her services as consulting editor of
this handbook series.
Yung-Tse Hung, Ohio, the USA
Lawrence K. Wang, New York, the USA
Nazih K. Shammas, California, the USA
Kathleen Hung Li, Texas, the USA
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CONTENTS
Preface vii
About the Editors xvii
Contributors xix
1. Biosolids Management 1
Hamidi Abdul Aziz, Nor Habsah Md Sabiani, Miskiah Fadzilah
Ghazali, Abu Ahmed Mokammel Haque, and Yung-Tse Hung
1. Introduction ........................... 2
2. Classification of Biosolids .................... 6
3. Biosolids Treatment and Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4. Land Applications of Biosolids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5. Use and Disposal of Biosolids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
2. Sludge Management 149
Duu-Jong Lee, Joo-Hwa Tay, Yung-Tse Hung, and Ching-Yuan Chang
1. The Origin of Sludge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
2. Sludge Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
3. Making Management Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
4. Sludge Disposal Routes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5. Sludge Management Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
6. Moisture Content of Sludge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
7. Synthesis of Management Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
8. Sustainable Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
xi
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xii Contents
3. Landfill for Solid Waste Disposal 177
Hamidi Abdul Aziz, Abu Ahmed Mokammel Haque,
Mohd Suffian Yusoff, and Yung-Tse Hung
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
2. Location Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
3. Operating Crieria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
4. Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
5. Groundwater Monitoring and Corrective Action . . . . . . . . 288
6. Closure and Post-Closure Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
4. Landfilling of Municipal Solid Waste in Europe 365
Witold Stepniewski, Malgorzata Pawlowska,
Marcin K. Widomski, Artur Pawlowski, and Yung-Tse Hung
1. Waste Landfilling — Current Status and Perspectives . . . . . . 366
2. Chemical and Physical Processes in Landfill Body . . . . . . . 371
3. Landfill Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
4. Sanitary Landfill Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
5. Daily Waste Landfilling Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
6. Landfill Control and Monitoring Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
7. Closure, Capping, and Remediation of Landfill . . . . . . . . . 396
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
5. Liners for Waste 403
Aik Heng Lee, Hamid Nikraz, and Yung-Tse Hung
1. Landfills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
2. Liners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
3. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
6. Beneficial Reuse of Waste Products 425
Azza El-Maghraby, Marwa Farouk Mahmoud El-Kady, Nahla
Ahmed Taha, Marwa Awwad Abd El-Hamied, and Yung-Tse Hung
1. Waste Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
2. Wastewater Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
3. Reuse of Waste Cooking Oil in Biodiesel Production . . . . . . 460
4. Plastic Waste Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
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Contents xiii
7. Reuse of Foundry Sand as Construction Materials 491
An Deng and Yung-Tse Hung
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
2. Foundry Industry Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
3. Chemical Characterization of Foundry Sand . . . . . . . . . . 505
4. Benefical Reuse of Foundry Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
5. Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
6. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
8. Stabilization of Brown Coal Fly Ash using Geopolymers 551
Linda Zou, Piotr Bankowski, and Yung-Tse Hung
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
2. Background on Geopolymer Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
3. Experimental Methods of Using Geopolymer to Stabilize
Fly Ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
4. Analytical Tools used to Study the Effectiveness of
Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
5. Results of Stabilization of Fly Ash by Geopolymers . . . . . . 561
6. Mechanisms of Interaction between Fly Ash and
Geopolymer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
7. Discussions of Geopolymer Fly Ash Treatment Process . . . . 582
8. Potential uses of Fly Ash-Geopolymer Materials . . . . . . . . 586
9. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
9. Municipal Solid Waste Recovery and Recycling 593
Puangrat Kajitvichyanukul and Yung-Tse Hung
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
2. Collection of Recyclable Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
3. Processing of Recyclable Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
4. Materials Recovery Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621
5. Marketting of Recyclable Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
6. Design Examples and Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
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xiv Contents
10. Use of Selective Recycled Materials in Civil Engineering
Construction 635
Mahfooz Soomro and Yung-Tse Hung
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
2. Fly Ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
3. Cement Kiln Dust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650
4. Recycled Demolished Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
11. Use of Solid Wastes as Construction Materials 685
Yee-Loon Lee, Heng-Boon Koh, Toong-Hai Sam,
David E.C. Yeoh, Shahabudin bin Mustapa, Che-Fong Pang,
and Yung-Tse Hung
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
2. Ash Utilization Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
3. Durability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
4. More Ash Utilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693
5. Other Solid Wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
6. Paper Sludge and Rice Husk Composite . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702
7. Lightweight Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
8. Effect of Various Properties on Paper Sludge Composite . . . . 712
9. Acoustic Thermal Insulation Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718
10. TIA Composite Building System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722
11. Engineered Shear Wall System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722
12. Soft Soil Foundation System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724
13. Research Showcase — Micronized Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . 725
14. Summary — Challenges Ahead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728
12. The Use of Biological Methods for Toxicity Evaluation of Wastes
and Waste-Amended Soils 737
Svetlana Yu. Selivanovskaya, Polina Yu. Galitskaya,
and Yung-Tse Hung
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738
2. Bioindication and Biotesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739
3. Choice of the Appropriate Method of Biological Analysis . . . 742
4. Expression of Toxicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743