Global Drinking Water Management and Conservation: Optimal Decision-Making

Springer Water

Global

Drinking Water

Management

and Conservation

Mohammed H. Dore

Optimal Decision-Making

Springer Water

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13419

Mohammed H. Dore

Global Drinking Water

Management and

Conservation

Optimal Decision-Making

123

Mohammed H. Dore

Department of Economics

Climate Change Lab Brock University

St. Catharines, Ontario

Canada

ISBN 978-3-319-11031-8 ISBN 978-3-319-11032-5 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-11032-5

Library of Congress Control Number: 2014948761

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For my grandchildren: Aidan, Norah, and

Liam. May they inherit a clean environment

and clean water

Preface

This writing project began as a book on a number of issues affecting drinking water

and governmental policy on water resource management. But the range and depth

of the material on the subject necessitated that it be split into two companion books,

each of which could be read and appreciated independently of the other. As the title

of this book indicates, the focus of this book is on a number of theoretical principles

that should guide water resource management and drinking water production, both

in the developed and developing countries. It makes sense to bring these theoretical

principles under one cover, especially this year, as this is the United Nations

“International Decade for Action, Water for Life, 2005–2015.” The companion

book is focused on water policy in Canada. However, each book can be read

independently of the other.

In a series of books and reports, Dr. Peter Gleick, President of the Pacific

Institute, has carried out painstaking research on a large number of issues relevant

to the sustainable use of water resources. His latest biannual report was released in

January 2014. This book complements that research with a focus on the manage￾ment of drinking water, although that cannot be divorced from sustainable water

resource management for ecosystem health, the overarching philosophy for sus￾tainable use that German water and other European authorities have explicitly

recognized. Maintenance and restoration of ecosystem functioning and health ought

now to be recognized as being synonymous with the “social good.” But the growing

evidence of environmental damage all over the globe makes it clear that the social

good is being very narrowly defined. The environmental damage can be seen in

stresses on land, air, oceans, and freshwater.

Global freshwater resources are coming under increasing stress, not only due to

economic development of middle income and poorer countries but also due to

shifting patterns of precipitation due to climate change, whereby the northern

hemisphere is getting wetter but some pockets of drier areas getting even drier, such

as the mid-southwest of the United States and the drier areas of western Canada. On

the other hand in Africa, desertification is advancing and flow rates in the existing

rivers and lakes are becoming more variable. Areas in southern Europe can also

expect increasing water stress. Under these conditions, conservation of water has

vii

increased in importance. Some water-stressed areas are beginning to look for inter￾basin water transfers but these are unsound from the perspective of ecosystem

health. There is also growing evidence of water conflicts becoming more promi￾nent. A large trade in drinking water in the form of bottled water exists but there is

also a search for bulk water exports. For example much of Canada’s water flows

north, but from time to time there are fears of the possibility of bulk water export or

diversion of freshwater from the northern rivers and the Great Lakes into the

Mississippi River though the Chicago Diversion for the growing population of the

US “sunbelt.” Similarly, Turkey has proposed bulk water exports to Israel. Some

inter-basin transfers, such as those from the Great Lakes to the south of the US have

the potential for future conflict.

Inter-basin water transfers and the potential for conflict can be avoided if there is

in place a committed policy of water conservation in order to ensure that ecosystem

health is ranked as a priority in water resource management all over the globe. This

primary aim needs to be supplemented with systemic adaptation to the changing

availability of freshwater through climate change and its effects on the distribution

of water. However, rapid (though uneven) economic development is making water

scarcity a major threat. As fresh and clean water supply comes under stress, most

drinking water is no longer pristine and must be treated for pathogens and other

contaminants. In North America, the treatment method is to rely largely on chlorine,

primarily to kill bacteria and viruses. But the threats from protozoa remain, and

these have led to a number of waterborne disease outbreaks, as chlorine is inef￾fective against a number of pathogens, as this books shows.

The production of drinking water requires adequate management, with appro￾priate pricing and management under risk, an idea that the World Health Organi￾zation has been promoting in order to reduce or eliminate waterborne disease

outbreaks. In this book, the major theoretical issues in the management of drinking

water are considered in some detail. These issues are: (1) watershed protection from

harmful human industrial, mining and agricultural activity; (2) characteristics of

drinking water treatment technologies and their unit prices under conditions of

economies of scale; (3) theory and practice of water pricing; (4) methods and

processes of adopting risk assessment in drinking water management; (5) up-to-date

water infrastructure management incorporating risk; (6) a serious commitment to

overcome risks to long-term health through reduced reliance on chlorine and

chlorine derivatives for disinfection; (7) an inadequate response to the threat of lead

in drinking water; and (8) poor management of wastewater that becomes the source

of drinking water, with the concomitant presence of micro-pollutants in the drinking

water. All this is the subject of this volume. In a companion book, the focus is

government-level policy on water in Canada. As water is a provincial responsi￾bility, there are separate chapters on water policy in four provinces: Ontario,

Alberta, British Columbia, and Newfoundland and Labrador.

Returning to this book, and the key principles, a word about how water supply is

organized in some developed countries. Some large cities in Europe operate water

supply as a private but regulated business. However, in much of the world water is

almost exclusively provided by a local municipality, as a local “public” good.

viii Preface

Naturally in this case there is no profit motive, and no incentive to innovate,

introduce more advanced technology, and to improve water quality. The European

private companies and other pockets of privatized water companies seem well

managed, but it is not clear that they are innovators in delivering higher water

quality. What seems to lead to higher quality drinking water is government lead￾ership through adequate regulation, as in Denmark, the Netherlands, and Germany.

When the public becomes aware of what is possible and finds out what has been

done in other jurisdictions, such as Denmark, the Netherlands, and Germany, then

perhaps public awareness will push their own governments and their utilities to

improve water quality.

There are two long-term threats to health associated with the treatment and

delivery of drinking water: one is the presence of lead in drinking water, which is a

serious health hazard. It is therefore imperative that the lead content of drinking

water is properly measured; there are two chapters that deal with lead in drinking

water (Chaps. 10 and 11). The other long-term threat is the use of chlorine and

chlorine derivatives used in the disinfection of drinking water (Chap. 9). The use of

chlorine results in a large number of “disinfection byproducts,” some of which are

regulated in the developed countries. But chlorine alone is ineffective against

protozoa, and the byproducts carry some very long-term threats to human health.

There are new treatment technologies that do not have these byproducts and are

therefore safer. These newer technologies can be used to deliver a higher quality of

water, but there appears to be lack of knowledge of these possibilities, and possibly

apathy among governments. Consumers might demand better water quality if they

had more information on the new technologies and their costs.

Communities in Europe seem more cognizant of some of the long-term threats to

health associated with the use of chlorine as a primary disinfectant, but other threats

due to lead in the water remain a major concern, although there are some European

countries (like Denmark) where this threat is taken very seriously and largely

eliminated. But in the rest of the world the presence of lead in old pipes and even in

the treatment systems continues to be a concern. For the threat of lead, what is

required is a chemically sound lead sampling protocol and an appropriate maximum

contamination level (MCL) set as a regulation. It would also help if there was a

systematic plan to eliminate all lead pipes and fixtures.

Most developed countries have strong regulations against the presence of

pathogens and once lead is eliminated, the next frontier in water quality will be the

elimination of chemical contaminants such as pesticides (e.g. atrazine), herbicides,

pharmaceuticals, and personal care products. This is a problem when the source

water comes from multi-use watersheds like the Great (North American) Lakes.

Europe has made more progress; most European jurisdictions have moved away

from surface water as a source and switched to groundwater, which by itself is a

natural form of “treatment”; groundwater is often free of contaminants except

where there are known contaminants, such as iron and manganese.

It could be argued that smaller countries like Denmark and the Netherlands can

afford to be aggressive in assuring better quality of water. But the case study of

Germany reported in this book shows what can be done to improve drinking water

Preface ix

quality by avoiding some of the long-term risks. Germany offers some important

lessons both for North America and for the developing world on how water supply

could and should be managed.

I hope that the coverage of these important topics in the management and

delivery of clean water will stimulate discussion on what can be learnt from Ger￾many to help improve drinking water quality everywhere, including the developing

countries. Thus the book is oriented toward filling the knowledge gap and showing

the potential for improvement. As such it is likely to be of interest to water system

owners, managers, water engineering consultants, and regulators all over the world.

The comparative dimension may also appeal to some readers, to see how some

jurisdictions manage their water supply as a public service producing a product

essential to life.

*****

I should like to record all the help that I have received in writing this and the

companion book. First, the two books would not have been possible without the

research grants that I have been fortunate enough to receive from the Social Sci￾ences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC), The National Science

and Engineering Council of Canada (NSERC), the Canadian Foundation for Cli￾mate and Atmospheric Sciences (CFCAS),1 the US National Science Foundation

(US-NSF), the Climate Change Action Fund of the Federal Government of Canada,

and grants for teaching release from Brock University, which in turn were possible

thanks to the Research Time Release Stipends included in my SSHRC grants over

the last few years. The research grants enabled me to establish my Climate Change

Lab at Brock University. In this lab I was fortunate in hiring many of my students

as research assistants, and most of them wrote their graduate or undergraduate

Honors theses under my supervision in the lab. They have greatly influenced my

thinking and many contributed important germs of new ideas, and new models as

vehicles of inquiry; these dramatically altered my thinking, as teaching is a two-way

enriching process. I want to record my debt to all my former students, who are now

well established in their own careers. The names that I remember most (in alpha￾betical order) are: Abba Ansah, Katherine Ball, Geoff Black, Ryan Bruno, Hassan

Chilmeran, Ridha Chilmeran, Eric Eastman, Ken Gilmour, Clay Greene, Indra

Hardeen, Ryan Harder, Aaron Janzen (at the University of Calgary), Jamie Jiang,

Mathew Chang Kit, Ryan Kwan, Soomin (Tomy) Lee, Tony Lipiec, Roelof

Makken, Michael Patterson, Jeff Pelletier, Sasha Radulovich, Angela Ragoonath,

Noureen Shah, Amar Shangavi, Peter Simcisko, Rajiv Singh, Harvey Stevens,

Mireille Trent, and Klemen Zumer. They all cut their “research” teeth in my lab but

gave much of their time and effort and are now my friends. While some are

completing PhDs, others are well advanced in their professional careers; one of

them (Roelof Makken) generously established the “Mohammed Dore Graduate

1 Now transformed by the Federal Government into the “Canadian Climate Forum,” and no

longer a granting agency.

x Preface

Research Scholarship” at Brock University and is now an adjunct Professor at

Brock University, where he has taken over some of my teaching. Jamie Jiang in

particular has taken on much of the econometric estimation work and as well as the

editorial work of these two books. Her work is meticulous and painstaking; she

leaves my lab in the Fall of this year to start her Ph.D. program. I think of all of my

former students as my co-authors of these two books; I cannot imagine how I would

have functioned without them.

My thanks also go to the Deans of the Faculty of Social Sciences (Deans David

Siegel and Thomas Dunk) and the Office of the Vice President, Research Services;

their help has been invaluable. The chapter on Germany was read by two people in

Germany: my good friend Dieter Jablonka and Mr. Michael Schneemann, water

engineer at Wasserbeschaffungsverband, the water utility in Harburg, Germany.

Mr. Schneemann’s comments and suggestions were very helpful. I also received

help and advice from Prof. Dr.-Ing. Helmut Grüning, at the IWARU Institute of

Water in Münster and from Dr. Christiane Markard, Head of Division II, “Envi￾ronmental Health and Protection of Ecosystems,” at Umweltbundesamt, which is

the Environmental Protection Agency of the Federal Republic of Germany. But I

alone am responsible for the contents of this book and for any remaining

deficiencies.

I must thank Margaret Dore who over the years has read and edited all my books

and many of my articles. She has read and improved many successive drafts of the

two books being published by Springer. Finally I wish to record my thanks to my

Editor, Dr. Tobias Wassermann, at Springer for constructive comments and con￾stant encouragement; in many ways he is an ideal editor.

July, 2014

Preface xi

Contents

Part I Waterborne Diseases and Watershed Protection

1 Introduction to Drinking Water Management ............... 3

1.1 An Apologia or Why I Wrote This Book. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2 Water in a Global Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.2.1 Climate Change and Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.3 What This Book Is About . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2 Waterborne Disease Outbreaks and the Multi-barrier

Approach to Protecting Drinking Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.2 Protozoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.2.1 Cryptosporidium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.2.2 Giardia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.2.3 Toxoplasma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2.3 Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2.3.1 Campylobacter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2.3.2 Escherichia Coli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.4 Lessons from Disease Outbreaks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2.5 Principles of Watershed Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

2.6 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Part II Drinking Water Treatment Technology and Pricing

3 Water Treatment Technologies and Their Costs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

3.2 Six Classes of Water Treatment Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

xiii

3.3 Projected Costs: Ultra Violet, Micro Filtration—Ultra

Filtration (MF-UF), High Rate Treatment and Clarification

(HRC), and Ozonation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3.4 Class 5 Treatment Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

3.5 Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration (Class 6) . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

3.6 Examples of Actual Costs of a Few Existing Plants . . . . . . . . 48

3.7 Summing up and Tentative Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

4 Reverse Osmosis and Other Treatment Technologies . . . . . . . . . . 55

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

4.2 Water Desalination Technology in Application . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

4.3 Desalination Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

4.3.1 Reverse Osmosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

4.3.2 Distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

4.3.3 Electrodialysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

4.3.4 Ion Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

4.3.5 Freeze Desalination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

4.4 Relative Costs of Desalination Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

4.4.1 Feed-Water Salinity Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

4.4.2 Energy Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

4.4.3 Economies of Scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

4.5 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

5 The Theory of Water and Utility Pricing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

5.2 The Dupuit-Hotelling Theory of Marginal Cost Pricing . . . . . . 76

5.2.1 The Derivation of the Marginal Cost Pricing Rule. . . . 76

5.3 Private Versus Public Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

5.4 Absolute Efficiency Advantage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

5.5 Second-Best (Ramsey) Pricing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

5.5.1 Derivation of Ramsey Prices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

5.5.2 Ramsey Pricing Expressed as Covering

Capital Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

5.5.3 Ramsey Pricing and Equity Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

5.6 Econometric Estimation of Shadow Ramsey Prices . . . . . . . . . 92

5.6.1 Derivation of MC for Two Types of Desalination . . . . 93

5.6.2 Derivation of Shadow Ramsey Prices

and Breakeven Prices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

5.7 Water Pricing in Developed Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

5.7.1 Water Pricing Practice in the US . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

5.7.2 Water Pricing Practice in the European Union . . . . . . 104

5.7.3 Water Pricing Practice in Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

xiv Contents

5.8 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

Part III Incorporating Risk in Decision-Making

6 Risk Assessment for Safe Drinking Water Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . 117

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

6.2 Source Water Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

6.2.1 Principles of Watershed Management . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

6.2.2 Source Water Pollution Control Measures . . . . . . . . . 119

6.3 Risk Management Methods for Producing Potable Water

Supplies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

6.3.1 Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point

Protocol. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

6.3.2 The World Health Organization Water Safety Plan . . . 125

6.3.3 The Bonn Charter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

6.3.4 Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment . . . . . . . . . . 129

6.3.5 Risk Assessment Application to Water Treatment

Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

6.4 Case Studies of Risk Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

6.4.1 Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

6.4.2 Uganda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

6.4.3 Iceland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

6.4.4 Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

6.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

7 Introduction to Water Infrastructure Asset Management . . . . . . . 153

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

7.1.1 Infrastructure Management in Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

7.1.2 Case Study 1, Capital Regional District of British

Columbia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

7.1.3 Case Study 2, Asset Management in Australia . . . . . . 157

7.2 Incorporating Risk in Water Infrastructure Management. . . . . . 159

7.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

7.2.2 Risk Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

7.2.3 Redundancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

7.3 Risk Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

7.4 Decision Support System (DSS) Incorporating Risk . . . . . . . . 168

7.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

7.4.2 The Decision Support System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

7.4.3 Incorporation of Risk into the DSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

Contents xv

7.5 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

8 Computing a Model for Asset Management with Risk . . . . . . . . . 175

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

8.2 Towards Solving the DSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

8.3 Application of Risk into the DSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

8.3.1 A Numerical Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

8.3.2 A Graphical Solution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

8.4 Case Studies from British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

8.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

8.4.2 City A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

8.4.3 City B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

8.4.4 City C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

8.5 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

9 Threats to Human Health: Use of Chlorine, an Obsolete

Treatment Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

9.2 Long-Term Health Effects of Using Chlorine . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

9.2.1 Chlorinated DBPs Exposure with Cancer Incidence. . . 198

9.2.2 Effects on Preterm Births and Health Defects

in the Unborn Child . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

9.2.3 Changes in Blood Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

9.2.4 Contribution of DBPs to the Estrogenic Effects

in Drinking Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

9.3 Management Practices in Developed Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

9.4 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

10 Public Health and Lead Sampling Protocols for Drinking

Water: A Critical Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

10.2 Adverse Health Risks and Social Costs Associated

with Lead in Drinking Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

10.2.1 Amount of Lead in Blood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

10.2.2 Health Effects of Lead in Blood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

10.2.3 Social Costs of Lead in Drinking Water. . . . . . . . . . . 218

10.3 The Canadian Federal Guidelines for a Protocol

for Sampling Drinking Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

10.3.1 Stagnation Time and Sampling Protocols . . . . . . . . . . 220

10.3.2 Canadian Federal Guidelines for Lead Sampling

Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

10.3.3 The Ontario Lead Sampling Protocol. . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

10.3.4 The 1999 EU Report. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

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