Fundamentals of electrical engineering

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FUNDAMENTALS OF

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

First Edition

Giorgio Rizzoni

The Ohio State University

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FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Rizzoni, Giorgio.

Fundamentals of electrical engineering / Giorgio Rizzoni. – 1st ed.

p. cm.

Includes index.

ISBN 978–0–07–338037–7 — ISBN 0–07–338037–7 (hard copy : alk. paper) 1. Electric engineering. I. Title.

TK146.R4725 2009

621.3–dc22

2008000852

In memoria di

mamma

www.mhhe.com

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iii

About the Author

iorgio Rizzoni,The Ford Motor Company Chair of ElectroMechanical Systems,

received the B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. degrees, all in electrical engineering, from

the University of Michigan. He is currently a professor of mechanical and

electrical engineering at The Ohio State University, where he teaches under￾graduate courses in system dynamics, measurements, and mechatronics and graduate

courses in automotive power train modeling and control, hybrid vehicle modeling

and control, and system fault diagnosis.

Dr. Rizzoni has been involved in the development of innovative curricula

and educational programs throughout his career. At the University of Michigan, he

developed a new laboratory and curriculum for the circuits and electronics engineer￾ing service course for non–electrical engineering majors. At Ohio State, he has been

involved in the development of undergraduate and graduate curricula in mechatronic

systems with funding provided, in part, by the National Science Foundation through

an interdisciplinary curriculum development grant. The present book has been pro￾foundly influenced by this curriculum development.

Professor Rizzoni has contributed to the development of a graduate curriculum

in these areas, served as the director of U.S. Department of Energy Graduate

Automotive Technology Education Center for Hybrid Drivetrains and Control

Systems, and is currently serving as Director of the new U.S. Department of

Energy GraduateAutomotive Technology Education Center for Advanced Propulsion

Systems. He has developed various new courses in systems dynamics, mechatronics,

fault diagnosis, powertrain dynamics and hybrid-electric vehicles.

Since 1999, Dr. Rizzoni has served as director of the Ohio State University

Center for Automotive Research, an interdisciplinary research center serving the U.S.

government and the automotive industry worldwide. The center conducts research in

areas related to vehicle safety, energy efficiency, environmental impact, and passenger

comfort. Dr. Rizzoni has published more than 200 papers in peer-reviewed journals

and conference proceedings, and he has received a number of recognitions, including

a 1991 NSF Presidential Young Investigator Award.

Dr. Rizzoni is a Fellow of IEEE, a Fellow of SAE, and a member of ASME

and ASEE; he has served as an Associate Editor of the ASME Journal of Dynamic

Systems, Measurements, and Control (1993 to 1998) and of the IEEE Transactions on

Vehicular Technology (1988 to 1998). He has also served as Guest Editor of Special

Issues of the IEEE Transactions on Control System Technology, of the IEEE Control

Systems Magazine, and of Control Engineering Practice; Dr. Rizzoni is a past Chair

of the ASME Dynamic Systems and Control Division, and has served as Chair of

the Technical Committee on Automotive Control for the International Federation of

Automatic Control (IFAC).

Giorgio Rizzoni is the Ohio State University SAE student branch faculty adviser,

and has led teams of electrical and mechanical engineering students through the

development of an electric vehicle that established various land speed records in

2003 and 2004. He has more recently led a team of students to the development of a

hydrogen fuel cell electric land speed record vehicle, the Buckeye Bullet 2 (see cover

and inside coverpage). He is also coadviser of the Ohio State University FutureTruck

and Challenge-X hybrid-electric vehicle competition teams sponsored by the U.S.

Department of Energy, and by General Motors and Ford.

http://car.osu.edu

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iv

Contents

Preface vi

Chapter 1 Introduction to Electrical

Engineering 1

1.1 Electrical Engineering 2

1.2 Fundamentals of Engineering Exam Review 4

1.3 System of Units 5

1.4 Special Features of This Book 5

PART I CIRCUITS 8

Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Electric

Circuits 9

2.1 Definitions 10

2.2 Charge, Current, and Kirchhoff’s Current

Law 14

2.3 Voltage and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law 20

2.4 Electric Power and Sign Convention 24

2.5 Circuit Elements and Their i-v

Characteristics 28

2.6 Resistance and Ohm’s Law 29

2.7 Practical Voltage and Current Sources 44

2.8 Measuring Devices 45

Chapter 3 Resistive Network

Analysis 63

3.1 Network Analysis 64

3.2 The Node Voltage Method 65

3.3 The Mesh Current Method 75

3.4 Node and Mesh Analysis With Controlled

Sources 82

3.5 The Principle of Superposition 87

3.6 One-Port Networks and Equivalent Circuits 90

3.7 Maximum Power Transfer 106

3.8 Nonlinear Circuit Elements 110

Chapter 4 AC Network Analysis 129

4.1 Energy Storage (Dynamic) Circuit

Elements 130

4.2 Time-Dependent Signal Sources 145

4.3 Solution of Circuits Containing Energy Storage

Elements (Dynamic Circuits) 150

4.4 Phasor Solution of Circuits With Sinusoidal

Excitation 153

Chapter 5 Transient Analysis 177

5.1 Transient Analysis 178

5.2 Writing Differential Equations for Circuits

Containing Inductors and Capacitors 179

5.3 DC Steady-State Solution of

Circuits Containing Inductors and

Capacitors—Initial and Final Conditions 184

5.4 Transient Response of First-Order Circuits 190

5.5 Transient Response of Second-Order

Circuits 209

Chapter 6 Frequency Response

and System Concepts 243

6.1 Sinusoidal Frequency Response 244

6.2 Filters 249

6.3 Bode Plots 265

Chapter 7 AC Power 279

7.1 Power in AC Circuits 280

7.2 Complex Power 287

7.3 Transformers 303

7.4 Three-Phase Power 313

7.5 Residential Wiring; Grounding

and Safety 321

7.6 Generation and Distribution

of AC Power 325

PART II ELECTRONICS 340

Chapter 8 Operational

Amplifiers 341

8.1 Ideal Amplifiers 342

8.2 The Operational Amplifier 344

8.3 Active Filters 366

8.4 Integrator and Differentiator Circuits 372

8.5 Physical Limitations of Operational

Amplifiers 374

Chapter 9 Semiconductors

and Diodes 407

9.1 Electrical Conduction in Semiconductor

Devices 408

9.2 The pn Junction and the Semiconductor

Diode 410

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Contents v

9.3 Circuit Models for the Semiconductor

Diode 413

9.4 Rectifier Circuits 431

9.5 DC Power Supplies, Zener Diodes,

and Voltage Regulation 436

Chapter 10 Bipolar Junction

Transistors: Operation, Circuit

Models, and Applications 453

10.1 Transistors as Amplifiers and Switches 454

10.2 Operation of the Bipolar Junction

Transistor 456

10.3 BJT Large-Signal Model 462

10.4 Selecting an Operating Point for a BJT 470

10.5 BJT Switches and Gates 478

Chapter 11 Field-Effect Transistors:

Operation, Circuit Models, and

Applications 491

11.1 Classification of Field-Effect

Transistors 492

11.2 Overview of Enhancement-Mode

Mosfets 492

11.3 Biasing Mosfet Circuits 497

11.4 Mosfet Large-Signal Amplifiers 503

11.5 Mosfet Switches 510

Chapter 12 Digital Logic

Circuits 521

12.1 Analog and Digital Signals 522

12.2 The Binary Number System 524

12.3 Boolean Algebra 531

12.4 Karnaugh Maps and Logic Design 544

12.5 Combinational Logic Modules 557

12.6 Sequential Logic Modules 562

PART III ELECTROMECHANICS 586

Chapter 13 Principles of

Electromechanics 587

13.1 Electricity and Magnetism 588

13.2 Magnetic Circuits 598

13.3 Magnetic Materials and B-H Curves 609

13.4 Transformers 611

13.5 Electromechanical Energy Conversion 615

Chapter 14 Introduction to Electric

Machines 645

14.1 Rotating Electric Machines 646

14.2 Direct-Current Machines 658

14.3 Direct-Current Generators 664

14.4 Direct-Current Motors 668

14.5 AC Machines 681

14.6 The Alternator (Synchronous Generator) 683

14.7 The Synchronous Motor 685

14.8 The Induction Motor 690

Appendix A Linear Algebra and

Complex Numbers∗

Appendix B The Laplace

Transform∗

Appendix C Fundamentals of

Engineering (FE) Examination∗

Appendix D Answers to Selected

Problems 710

Index 720

∗

Appendixes A, B, and C are available online at www.mhhe.com/rizzoni

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vi

Preface

he pervasive presence of electronic devices and instrumentation in all aspects of engineering design and

analysis is one of the manifestations of the electronic revolution that has characterized the second half of the

20th century. Every aspect of engineering practice, and even of everyday life, has been affected in some way

or another by electrical and electronic devices and instruments. Computers are perhaps the most obvious

manifestations of this presence. However, many other areas of electrical engineering are also important to the

practicing engineer, from mechanical and industrial engineering, to chemical, nuclear, and materials engineering,

to the aerospace and astronautical disciplines, to civil and the emerging field of biomedical engineering. Engineers

today must be able to communicate effectively within the interdisciplinary teams in which they work.

OBJECTIVES

Engineering education and engineering professional practice have seen some rather profound changes in the past

decade. The integration of electronics and computer technologies in all engineering academic disciplines and

the emergence of digital electronics and microcomputers as a central element of many engineering products and

processes have become a common theme since the conception of this book.

The principal objective of the book is to present the principles of electrical, electronic, and electromechanical

engineering to an audience composed of non–electrical engineering majors, and ranging from sophomore students

in their first required introductory electrical engineering course, to seniors, to first-year graduate students enrolled

in more specialized courses in electronics, electromechanics, and mechatronics.

A second objective is to present these principles by focusing on the important results and applications and

presenting the students with the most appropriate analytical and computational tools to solve a variety of practical

problems.

Finally, a third objective of the book is to illustrate, by way of concrete, fully worked examples, a number of

relevant applications of electrical engineering principles. These examples are drawn from the author’s industrial

research experience and from ideas contributed by practicing engineers and industrial partners.

ORGANIZATION AND CONTENT

The book is divided into three parts, devoted to circuits, electronics, and electromechanics.

Part I: Circuits

The first part of this book presents a basic introduction to circuit analysis (Chapters 2 through 7). The material

includes over 440 homework problems.

Part: II Electronics

Part II, on electronics (Chapters 8 through 12), contains a chapter on operational amplifiers, one on diodes, two

chapters on transistors—one each on BJTs and FETs, and one on digital logic circuits. The material contained in

this section is focused on basic applications of these concepts. The chapters include 320 homework problems.

Part III: Electromechanics

Part III, on electromechanics (Chapters 13 and 14), includes basic material on electromechanical transducers and

the basic operation of DC and AC machines. The two chapters include 126 homework problems.

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Preface vii

FEATURES

Pedagogy

This edition contains the following pedagogical features.

• Learning Objectives offer an overview of key chapter ideas. Each chapter opens with a list of major

objectives, and throughout the chapter the learning objective icon indicates targeted references to each

objective.

• Focus on Methodology sections summarize important methods and procedures for the solution of

common problems and assist the student in developing a methodical approach to problem solving.

• Clearly Illustrated Examples illustrate relevant applications of electrical engineering principles. The

examples are fully integrated with the “Focus on Methodology” material, and each one is organized

according to a prescribed set of logical steps.

• Check Your Understanding exercises follow each example in the text and allow students to confirm their

mastery of concepts.

• Make the Connection sidebars present analogies to students to help them see the connection of electrical

engineering concepts to other engineering disciplines.

• Find It on the Web links included throughout the book give students the opportunity to further explore

practical engineering applications of the devices and systems that are described in the text.

Supplements

The book includes a wealth of supplements available in electronic form. These include

• A website accompanies this text to provide students and instructors with

additional resources for teaching and learning. You can find this site at

www.mhhe.com/rizzoni. Resources on this site include

For Students:

• Device Data Sheets

• Learning Objectives

For Instructors:

• PowerPoint presentation slides of important figures from the text

• Instructor’s Solutions Manual with complete solutions (for instructors

only)

For Instructors and Students:

• Find It on the Web links, which give students the opportunity to explore, in

greater depth, practical engineering applications of the devices and systems

that are described in the text. In addition, several links to tutorial sites extend

the boundaries of the text to recent research developments, late-breaking

science and technology news, learning resources, and study guides to help

you in your studies and research.

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viii Preface

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This edition of the book requires a special acknowledgment for the effort put forth by my friend Tom Hartley of the

University of Akron, who has become a mentor, coach, and inspiration for me throughout this project. Professor

Hartley, who is an extraordinary teacher and a devoted user of this book, has been closely involved in the development

of this edition by suggesting topics for new examples and exercises, creating new homework problems, providing

advice and coaching through all of the revisions, and sometimes just by lifting my spirits. I look forward to many

more years of such collaborations.

This book has been critically reviewed by the following people.

• Hussain M. Al-Rizzo, University of

Arkansas-Little Rock

• Lisa Anneberg, Lawrence Technological

University

• Glen Archer, Michigan Tech University

• Sohrab Asgarpoor, University of

Nebraska-Lincoln

• Satish Chandra, Kansas State University

• Ezz I. El-Masry, Dalhousie University

• Alexander Ganago, University of Michigan

• Riadh W. Y. Habash, University of Ottawa

• Michael Hamid, University of South Alabama

• Vincent G. Harris, Northeastern University

• Charles Hulme, U.S. Naval Academy

• Jim Kearns, York College of Pennsylvania

• Moncef Krarti, University of Colorado at

Boulder

• Dennis F. Lovely, University of

New Brunswick

• Gary Perks, Cal Poly University, San Luis

Obispo

• Michael P. Polis, Oakland University

• Raveendra K. Rao, University of Western

Ontario

• Angela Rasmussen, University of Utah

• James R. Rowland, University of Kansas

• Ceeyavash (Jeff) Salehi, Southern Utah

University

• Mulukutla S. Sarma, Northeastern

University

• Hesham Shaalan, U.S. Merchant Marine

Academy

• Rony Shahidain, Kentucky State University

• Shahram Shahbazpanahi, University of

Ontario Institute of Technology

• Constantinos Vassiliadis, Ohio

University-Athens

• Belinda B. Wang, University of Toronto

• Ken Warfield, Shawnee State University

• Sean Washburn, University of North Carolina

at Chapel Hill

• Thomas Yang, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical

University

• Mohamed Z. Youssef, Queen’s University

The author is also grateful to Professor Robert Veillette of the University of Akron for his many useful comments

and suggestions.

Book prefaces have a way of marking the passage of time. When the first edition of Principles and Applications

of Electrical Engineering was published, the birth of our first child, Alex, was nearing. Each of the following two

editions was similarly accompanied by the births of Maria and Michael. Now that we have successfully reached

the fifth edition of Principles and Applications and the new first edition of this book (but only the third child) I am

observing that Alex is beginning to understand some of the principles exposed in this book through his passion for

the FIRST Lego League and the Lego Mindstorms robots. Through the years, our family continues to be the center

of my life, and I am grateful to Kathryn, Alessandro, Maria, and Michael for all their love.

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GUIDED TOUR

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x Preface

January 11, 2008 15:36 Chap01 Sheet number 1 Page number 1 magenta black

1

CHAPTER

1

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING

he aim of this chapter is to introduce electrical engineering. The chapter is

organized to provide the newcomer with a view of the different specialties

making up electrical engineering and to place the intent and organization of

the book into perspective. Perhaps the first question that surfaces in the mind

of the student approaching the subject is, Why electrical engineering? Since this book

is directed at a readership having a mix of engineering backgrounds (including elec￾trical engineering), the question is well justified and deserves some discussion. The

chapter begins by defining the various branches of electrical engineering, showing

some of the interactions among them, and illustrating by means of a practical example

how electrical engineering is intimately connected to many other engineering disci￾plines. Section 1.2 introduces the Engineer-in-Training (EIT) national examination.

In Section 1.3 the fundamental physical quantities and the system of units are defined,

to set the stage for the chapters that follow. Finally, in Section 1.4 the organization of

the book is discussed, to give the student, as well as the teacher, a sense of continuity

in the development of the different subjects covered in Chapters 2 through 14.

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2 Chapter 1 Introduction to Electrical Engineering

1.1 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

The typical curriculum of an undergraduate electrical engineering student includes

the subjects listed in Table 1.1. Although the distinction between some of these

subjects is not always clear-cut, the table is sufficiently representative to serve our

purposes. Figure 1.1 illustrates a possible interconnection between the disciplines

of Table 1.1. The aim of this book is to introduce the non-electrical engineering

student to those aspects of electrical engineering that are likely to be most relevant

to his or her professional career. Virtually all the topics of Table 1.1 will be

touched on in the book, with varying degrees of emphasis. Example 1.1 illustrates

the pervasive presence of electrical, electronic, and electromechanical devices and

systems in a very common application: the automobile. As you read through the

examples, it will be instructive to refer to Figure 1.1 and Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Electrical

engineering disciplines

Circuit analysis

Electromagnetics

Solid-state electronics

Electric machines

Electric power systems

Digital logic circuits

Computer systems

Communication systems

Electro-optics

Instrumentation systems

Control systems

Power

systems

Engineering

applications

Mathematical

foundations

Electric

machinery

Analog

electronics

Digital

electronics

Computer

systems

Network

theory

Logic

theory

System

theory

Physical

foundations

Electro￾magnetics

Solid-state

physics

Optics

Control

systems

Communication

systems

Instrumentation

systems

Figure 1.1 Electrical engineering disciplines

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Electrical Engineering 3

EXAMPLE 1.1 Electrical Systems in a Passenger Automobile

A familiar example illustrates how the seemingly disparate specialties of electrical engineering

actually interact to permit the operation of a very familiar engineering system: the automobile.

Figure 1.2 presents a view of electrical engineering systems in a modern automobile. Even in

older vehicles, the electrical system—in effect, an electric circuit—plays a very important part

in the overall operation. (Chapters 2 and 3 describe the basics of electric circuits.) An inductor

coil generates a sufficiently high voltage to allow a spark to form across the spark plug gap

and to ignite the air-fuel mixture; the coil is supplied by a DC voltage provided by a lead-acid

battery. (Ignition circuits are studied in some detail in Chapter 5.) In addition to providing the

energy for the ignition circuits, the battery supplies power to many other electrical components,

the most obvious of which are the lights, the windshield wipers, and the radio. Electric power

(Chapter 7) is carried from the battery to all these components by means of a wire harness,

which constitutes a rather elaborate electric circuit (see Figure 2.12 for a closer look). In recent

years, the conventional electric ignition system has been supplanted by electronic ignition;

that is, solid-state electronic devices called transistors have replaced the traditional breaker

points. The advantage of transistorized ignition systems over the conventional mechanical ones

is their greater reliability, ease of control, and life span (mechanical breaker points are subject

to wear). You will study transistors and other electronic devices in Chapters 8, 9, and 10.

Other electrical engineering disciplines are fairly obvious in the automobile. The on-board

radio receives electromagnetic waves by means of the antenna, and decodes the communication

signals to reproduce sounds and speech of remote origin; other common communication

systems that exploit electromagnetics are CB radios and the ever more common cellular

phones. But this is not all! The battery is, in effect, a self-contained 12-VDC electric power

system, providing the energy for all the aforementioned functions. In order for the battery to

have a useful lifetime, a charging system, composed of an alternator and of power electronic

devices, is present in every automobile. Electric power systems are covered in Chapter 7

and power electronic devices in Chapter 10. The alternator is an electric machine, as are the

motors that drive the power mirrors, power windows, power seats, and other convenience

features found in luxury cars. Incidentally, the loudspeakers are also electric machines! All

these devices are described in Chapters 13 and 14.

The list does not end here, though. In fact, some of the more interesting applications

of electrical engineering to the automobile have not been discussed yet. Consider computer

systems. Digital circuits are covered in Chapter 12. You are certainly aware that in the last two

Safety

Air bags and restraints

Collision warning

Security systems

Convenience

Climate control

Ergonomics

(seats, steering wheel, mirrors)

Navigation

Audio/video/Internet/

Wireless communications

Propulsion

Engine/transmission

Integrated starter/alternator

Electric traction

42-V system

Battery management

Traction control

Ride and handling

Active/semiactive suspension

Antilock brakes

Electric power steering

Tire pressure control

Four-wheel steering

Stability control

Figure 1.2 Electrical engineering systems in the automobile