Freshwater Algae: Identification, Enumeration and Use as Bioindicators

FRESHWATER

ALGAE

Identification, Enumeration

and Use as Bioindicators

SECOND EDITION

Edward G. Bellinger

David C. Sigee

JWST514-fm JWST514-Bellinger Printer: Yet to Come November 22, 2014 6:56 246mm×189mm

ii

JWST514-fm JWST514-Bellinger Printer: Yet to Come November 22, 2014 6:56 246mm×189mm

Freshwater Algae

i

Freshwater Algae

Identification, Enumeration and Use as Bioindicators

Second Edition

Edward G. Bellinger

Department of Environmental Sciences and Policy,

Central European University, Hungary

and

David C. Sigee

School of Earth, Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences,

University of Manchester, UK

This edition first published 2015 © 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Bellinger, Edward G., author.

Freshwater algae : identification, enumeration and use as bioindicators / Edward G. Bellinger and David C. Sigee. – 2e.

pages cm

Includes index.

ISBN 978-1-118-91716-9 (hardback)

1. Freshwater algae. 2. Indicators (Biology) 3. Environmental monitoring. I. Sigee, David C., author. II. Title.

QK570.25.B45 2015

579.8′

176–dc23

2014031375

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic

books.

Cover image: David Sigee

Cover design by Soephian Zainal

Set in 10/12pt Times by Aptara Inc., New Delhi, India.

2 2015

Contents

Preface to the First Edition ix

Preface to the Second Edition xi

Acknowledgements xiii

1 Introduction to Freshwater Algae 1

1.1 General introduction 1

1.1.1 Algae – an overview 1

1.1.2 Algae as primary producers 2

1.1.3 Freshwater environments 2

1.1.4 Planktonic and benthic algae 2

1.1.5 Size and shape 4

1.2 Taxonomic variation – the major groups of algae 5

1.2.1 Microscopical appearance 8

1.2.2 Biochemistry and cell structure 8

1.2.3 Molecular characterisation and identification 10

1.3 Blue-green algae 13

1.3.1 Cytology 13

1.3.2 Morphological and taxonomic diversity 14

1.3.3 Ecology 15

1.3.4 Blue-green algae as bioindicators 16

1.4 Green algae 17

1.4.1 Cytology 18

1.4.2 Morphological diversity 18

1.4.3 Ecology 19

1.4.4 Green algae as bioindicators 22

1.5 Euglenoids 22

1.5.1 Cytology 23

1.5.2 Morphological diversity 23

1.5.3 Ecology 24

1.5.4 Euglenoids as bioindicators 24

1.6 Yellow-green algae 24

1.6.1 Cytology 24

1.6.2 Morphological diversity 25

1.6.3 Ecology 25

1.6.4 Yellow-green algae as bioindicators 26

vi CONTENTS

1.7 Dinoflagellates 26

1.7.1 Cytology 26

1.7.2 Morphological diversity 28

1.7.3 Ecology 28

1.8 Cryptomonads 29

1.8.1 Cytology 29

1.8.2 Comparison with euglenoid algae 30

1.8.3 Biodiversity 31

1.8.4 Ecology 31

1.8.5 Cryptomonads as bioindicators 32

1.9 Chrysophytes 32

1.9.1 Cytology 32

1.9.2 Morphological diversity 32

1.9.3 Ecology 32

1.9.4 Chrysophytes as bioindicators 33

1.10 Diatoms 34

1.10.1 Cytology 35

1.10.2 Morphological diversity 38

1.10.3 Ecology 40

1.10.4 Diatoms as bioindicators 41

1.11 Red algae 41

1.12 Brown algae 42

2 Sampling, Biomass Estimation and Counts of Freshwater Algae 43

A. PLANKTONIC ALGAE 43

2.1 Protocol for collection 43

2.1.1 Standing water phytoplankton 44

2.1.2 River phytoplankton 47

2.2 Mode of collection 48

2.2.1 Phytoplankton trawl net 48

2.2.2 Volume samplers 50

2.2.3 Integrated sampling 51

2.2.4 Sediment traps 52

2.3 Phytoplankton biomass 53

2.3.1 Turbidity 53

2.3.2 Dry weight and ash-free dry weight 54

2.3.3 Pigment concentrations 55

2.4 Flow cytometry: automated analysis of phytoplankton populations 60

2.5 Biodiversity of mixed-species populations: microscope counts and biovolumes 63

2.5.1 Sample preservation and processing 63

2.5.2 Chemical cleaning of diatoms 64

2.5.3 Species counts 65

2.5.4 Conversion of species counts to biovolumes 72

2.5.5 Indices of biodiversity 77

2.6 Biodiversity within single-species populations 78

2.6.1 Molecular analysis 78

2.6.2 Analytical microscopical techniques 79

CONTENTS vii

B. NON-PLANKTONIC ALGAE 83

2.7 Deep-water benthic algae 84

2.7.1 Benthic-pelagic coupling 84

2.7.2 Benthic algae and sediment stability 85

2.7.3 Invertebrate grazing of benthic algae 86

2.8 Shallow-water communities 86

2.8.1 Substrate 86

2.8.2 Algal communities 89

2.9 Algal biofilms 90

2.9.1 Mucilaginous biofilms 91

2.9.2 Biomass 91

2.9.3 Taxonomic composition 92

2.9.4 Matrix structure 94

2.10 Periphyton – algal mats 95

2.10.1 Inorganic substratum 95

2.10.2 Plant surfaces 95

3 Algae as Bioindicators 101

3.1 Bioindicators and water quality 101

3.1.1 Biomarkers and bioindicators 101

3.1.2 Characteristics of bioindicators 102

3.1.3 Biological monitoring versus chemical measurements 103

3.1.4 Monitoring water quality: objectives 104

3.2 Lakes 107

3.2.1 Contemporary planktonic and attached algae as bioindicators 107

3.2.2 Fossil algae as bioindicators: lake sediment analysis 108

3.2.3 Water quality parameters: inorganic and organic nutrients, acidity and

heavy metals 111

3.3 Wetlands 121

3.3.1 Marshes 121

3.3.2 Peatlands 123

3.4 Rivers 123

3.4.1 The periphyton community 123

3.4.2 River diatoms 123

3.4.3 Evaluation of the diatom community 124

3.4.4 Human impacts and diatom indices 126

3.4.5 Calculation of diatom indices 128

3.4.6 Practical applications of diatom indices 130

3.4.7 Nitrogen-fixing blue-green algae 135

3.5 Estuaries 135

3.5.1 Ecosystem complexity 136

3.5.2 Algae as estuarine bioindicators 137

4 A Key to the More Frequently Occurring Freshwater Algae 141

4.1 Introduction to the key 141

4.1.1 Using the key 141

4.1.2 Morphological groupings 142

viii CONTENTS

4.2 Key to the main genera and species 142

4.3 List of algae included and their occurrence in the key 249

4.4 Algal identification: bibliography 251

Glossary 253

References 259

Index 269

Preface to the First Edition

Almost any freshwater or brackish water site will

contain one or many species of algae. Although they

are mainly microscopic and therefore not as visually

apparent as larger aquatic organisms, such as higher

plants or fish, algae play an equally important role

in the ecology of these water bodies. Their presence

can sometimes be noticed when they occur as dense

populations, colouring the water and in some cases

forming massive surface scum.

Freshwater algae constitute a very diverse group of

organisms. Their range of shapes and beauty, when

viewed through a microscope, has delighted biolo￾gists for more than a hundred years. They have an

enormous range of size from less than one micrometre

to several centimetres (for the stoneworts) – equalling

the size span (104) for higher plants seen in a trop￾ical rainforest. Algal morphology is diverse, rang￾ing from single cells to complex colonies and fil￾aments. Some species are capable of active move￾ment. The term ‘algae’ embraces a number of phyla

(e.g. Cyanophyta, Bacillariophyta and Chlorophyta)

of chlorophyll-containing organisms with different

growth forms and cytologies. Algae are important

primary producers in both freshwater and marine sys￾tems. In many lakes and rivers, they generate biomass

which is the foundation of diverse food chains.

Although algae have beneficial impacts on aquatic

ecosystems, they can also have adverse effects. When

present in very large numbers they can produce

‘blooms’ that, on decomposition, deoxygenate the

water – causing fish death and other ecological prob￾lems. Some algae produce toxins that are lethal to

both aquatic and terrestrial organisms. It is important

to be aware of these impacts and to monitor waters

for the presence of these potentially harmful organ￾isms. Algae can be used to flag up and assess a range

of human and natural impacts in aquatic systems

because of their often rapid response to changes in the

environment. Examples include nutrient enrichment

(eutrophication), industrial pollution and changes to

the hydrological regime of the water body. Some

groups of algae preserve well as fossils in geological

deposits such as lake sediments, analysis of which

gives us information on past environmental changes.

This book comes at a time of increasing concern

over the widespread effects of human activities on

the general environment of this planet. Monitoring

shifts in algal population gives us an insight into these

changes. We need to be able to assess the ‘health’

of aquatic systems such as lakes and rivers, since

water is vital to both human and general ecosystem

survival. Knowledge of algal population dynamics

can help us develop effective management strategies

for those systems. Included in this book are sec￾tions on the general features of the main freshwater

algal groups with notes on their ecology, methods

of sample collection and enumeration, using algae

as indictors of environmental conditions and, finally,

a key to the identification of the more frequently

occurring genera. The authors have tried to combine

descriptive material with original colour photographs

and line drawings, where possible, to help the reader.

We would also like to gratefully acknowledge the

help and encouragement of colleagues and students,

and particularly appreciate the direct contributions

of postdoctoral workers and research students men￾tioned under Acknowledgements. We would also like

to thank our families for their understanding and

patience during the preparation of this text.

We hope that all those using the book will find

it useful, and will enjoy the numerous colour pho￾tographs of these very beautiful organisms.

Preface to the Second Edition

Revisions of the first edition have been carried out

to give a general update and to broaden the global

perspective. In Chapter 4, particularly, a substantial

number of new photographs have been contributed

from the United States and China (see Acknowl￾edgements), and various plates have been redrawn

to provide greater detail. The key has been exten￾sively modified to give greater clarity and to provide

additional information on several genera.

Acknowledgements

We are very grateful to Andrew Dean (Tables 2.3

and 2.4), Matt Capstick (Figs. 4.8, 4.10–4.12, 4.42,

4.62, 4.64, 4.66, 4.68–4.70a and 4.73a) and Huda

Qari (Fig. 2.8) for allowing us to present previously

unpublished data.

We also thank Academic Press, American Health

Association, Cambridge University Press, Journal

of Plankton Research, McGraw-Hill, Phycologia

and Prentice Hall for giving us permission to use

previously published data.

With the incorporation of a substantial amount of

new material into the second edition of the book, we

would particularly like to thank two colleagues from

the United States and the Republic of China for their

contributions:

Dr. Robin A. Matthews (Western Washington Uni￾versity, Bellingham, WA) – Figs. 4.2a, 4.2b, 4.4b,

4.18, 4.19, 4.24d, 4.29, 4.36, 4.45, 4.49, 4.51a,

4.51b, 4.52a, 4.53, 4.54 and 4.55.

Dr. Gaohua Ji (Shanghai Ocean University, Shang￾hai, China) – Figs. 4.8, 4.31, 4.42, 4.47, 4.48, 4.53

and 4.63.