Event Management and Event Tourism

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EVENT MANAGEMENT and EVENT TOURISM

Second Edition, 2004

By:

Donald Getz, PhD

Professor, Haskayne School of Business

University of Calgary, Canada

PREFACE and CONTENTS

The fields of event management and event tourism have grown dramatically since I wrote

Festivals, Special Events and Tourism in 1991, and even since 1997 when the first edition of

Event Management and Event Tourism was published. Many new career paths have emerged,

and the publication of relevant books and papers has mushroomed. Academic programs in event

management are now well established in many institutions around the globe. Both the academic

study of event management and the profession are maturing.

It is also now possible to talk seriously about a new academic field called “Event Studies”.

In 1991 there was very little literature, and only a few subjects taught about events, generally

within tourism, recreation or sports programs. Now it is possible to get graduate degrees specific

to event studies. Event Studies is a field of inquiry drawing on many other sources of theory,

knowledge and methods. Creation of Festival Management and Event Tourism, (now called

Event Management) as the first research journal devoted to this field (in 1993), co-founded by

myself and Dr. Bruce Wicks, gave impetus to the academic study of events.

Event Studies subsumes event management and event tourism. To become a professional in

event management or event tourism requires foundation knowledge concerning the nature of

events and their importance in society. If they were not such important phenomena why would

we invest so much in their production and marketing?

This book is really the second edition of Event Management and Event Tourism (Cognizant

1997), but it has a somewhat broader role to play, both in providing an overview of Event Studies

and providing a foundation for professional event management. I have deliberately expanded the

discussion of research, theory and the contributions of other fields and disciplines, as well as

updated and expanded all the management-specific material.

Key Objectives of the Book:

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(1) To define and explain the field of Event Studies as an academic foundation to the

professions and practice of event management and event tourism.

(2) To provide a comprehensive, systematic study of events as social, economic and

environmental phenomena.

(3) To provide students with the knowledge and skills for event management careers.

(4) To explain the nature and importance of event tourism, and how to employ events

in destination planning and marketing.

(5) To interpret and apply principles of business, public, and not-for-profit

management to the special needs of events and event organizations.

(3) To use case studies of successful events in demonstrating how managers can

improve their effectiveness and efficiency in producing successful events and

meeting their organization's wider goals.

(4) To demonstrate how different perspectives on events (i.e., economics, community,

visitors, organizations, sponsors, the environment) require different management

approaches, and how recognition of the inter-relatedness of all these perspectives

can enhance event production, marketing, and goal attainment.

(5) To foster professionalism in event management, covering the knowledge base,

theory, methodologies and ethics.

This book is specifically intended to be a college and university level text. Compared to the

majority of event-related books it places less emphasis on how to produce events, and more on

the following:

 underlying theory and knowledge from contributing disciplines and related fields

 the value and specific contributions of research

 integrative themes and methods

 discussion of important issues

 the necessity and nature of ethics in professionalism

 application of fundamental management theories and practices

I decided to keep the Event Tourism theme, in part because none of the other books on event

management include it. Events are of profound importance in tourism and hospitality and the

tourism market is important to many event producers, so it makes sense to combine the two.

In addition to a separate chapter on event tourism planning for destinations, I have also

integrated this theme throughout the book. Look for specific event tourism topics in the overall

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chapter outline, as well as in the chapter-specific learning objectives.

Revisions Made For The Second Edition

In addition to the emphasis placed on establishing Event Studies as a legitimate field of inquiry,

and Event Management as a profession, other changes have been made to the format and contents

of the book:

 chapters begin with learning objectives (which encompass pertinent management

competencies)

 chapters end with basic and advanced study questions (the advanced questions are more

suitable for assignments and essays)

 internet addresses and sources are provided throughout the text, especially with

regard to organizations and events that are profiled

 expanded sections on risk management, project planning, sponsorship, legal issues

including contracts, and logistics

 “research notes” provide important findings from published sources on many topics

discussed in the chapters; these should encourage students and practitioners to consult the

research literature

 more comprehensive coverage of the diversity of event careers and settings

 many examples have been kept, but updated and expanded, while some have been

replaced with new ones.

New For Instructors

Instructors using this text now have online access to an Instructor‟s Manual including a full set of

Powerpoint slides (both summary points from the text and all the line drawings). The manual

provides lecture outlines and advice on how to use the case studies, profiles and research notes.

Disclaimer

Although this book has been carefully researched and is very comprehensive in its examination

of event management, the event producer and manager must take ultimate responsibility for

ensuring that proper care is taken to operate a safe, financially sound, and enjoyable event. The

contents of this book are intended to inform and stimulate the event manager and are not to be

interpreted as firm advice that can be applied to any specific situation.

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Acknowledgements

Many people provided information and ideas for this book, however, I take full responsibility for

any errors or misinterpretation of the facts.

General thanks go to all the researchers and authors cited in this book, and the entire research

community that continues to develop the event managememnt field and event studies.

Special thanks are given to the following persons and organizations who made specific

contributions to this book, particularly in writing sections and granting permission to use

material.

Bethlehem Musikfest (Jo Pritchett)

Betsy Wiersma (Wiersma Experience Marketing and Creative Event Development)

Calgary Exhibition and Stampede (Dan Sullivan, Sandee Wahl, Leslie Stang)

Canadian Tulip Festival (Michel Gauthier)

Cherry Creek Arts Festival (Tony Smith)

Chicago Mayor‟s Office of Special Events (Cindy Gatziolis)

Concepts Worldwide (Theresa Breining)

e=mc2 event management (Ken Christofferson and Jocelyn Flanagan)

ESPN (Melissa Gullotti)

Gold Coast Events (Cameron Hart)

Goran Lindhal

GotEvent, Gothenburg Sweden (Toralf Nilsson)

International Association for Exhibition Management (Cathy Breden)

International Association of Fairs and Exhibitions (Rachel Stutesmun)

International Festivals and Events Association (Steve Schmader)

International Special Events Society (Kevin Hacke)

Meeting Professionals International (Kelly Schulz)

Orange County Convention Center (Shannon Cooper, Julie Snith)

Portland Rose Festival (Adrian McCarthy)

Queensland Events Corporation (Sharyn Sawyer, Fiona Lammie)

Tourism Ottawa (Martin Winges)

Volvo Event Management (Sven Osterberg)

William O‟Toole, Event Project Management System Pty Ltd.

The Journal of Travel Research has granted permission to use two diagrams published in JTR,

Vol. 39(4) 2001.

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CHAPTER OUTLINE AND CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO EVENT STUDIES, EVENT MANAGEMENT AND

EVENT TOURISM

 Do You Want To Be A Professional Event Manager?

 What Is Event Management?

 Event Studies

 Disciplinary Perspectives On Events

 Event Management Within Closely Related Fields

 What Is Event Tourism?

 Event Terminology

 Typology Of Planned Events

CHAPTER TWO: EVENT MANAGEMENT CAREERS AND PROFESSIONALISM

 Professionalism

 Specialized Career Paths In Event Management

 Levels Of Management And Managerial Knowledge And Skills

 A Model Of The Event Management System

 Profiles Of Professionals

CHAPTER THREE: PLANNING EVENTS

 What Is Planning?

 Project Planning And Management

 The Business Plan

 The Strategic Plan (including Force-Field Analysis)

CHAPTER FOUR: SITE PLANNING, OPERATIONS AND LOGISTICS

 Planning The Venue Or Site

 The Operations Plan And Logistics

 Planning For “Green” And Sustainable Events

CHAPTER FIVE: DESTINATION PLANNING FOR EVENT TOURISM

 Tourism Trends that Influence the Events Sector

 Event Tourism Planning and Policy

 Event Tourism Strategies And Tactics

 Leveraging Events And The Legacy

 Research For Event Tourism Planning

CHAPTER SIX: THE EVENT EXPERIENCE, PROGRAMMING, and QUALITY

MANAGEMENT

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 Program Planning

 Developing A Program Portfolio

 The Program Life Cycle

 The Quality Of Events

 Quality Management

CHAPTER SEVEN: ORGANIZATION and CO-ORDINATION

 Perspectives on Event Organizations

 Organizational Structures For Events

 Managing Not-For-Profit Associations

 Organizational Culture

 The Learning Organization

CHAPTER EIGHT: HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

 What is Human Resource Management?

 The HR Planning Process

 Motivation Theory

 Motivating and Managing Volunteers

CHAPTER NINE: ACQUIRING RESOURCES AND FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

 Where‟s The Money?

 The Price of Admission

 Sponsorship

 Financial Management

CHAPTER TEN: SAFETY, HEALTH, RISK MANAGEMENT AND SECURITY

 Special Hazards And Threats Associated With Events

 The Comprehensive Health And Safety Plan

 The Comprehensive Risk Management Plan

 Alcohol Risk Management

 Crowd Management And Control

 Legal Issues

CHAPTER ELEVEN: MARKETING

 The Marketing Concept and Marketing Mix

 Marketing Planning and Measuring Demand

 Segmentation and Selecting Target Markets

 A Benefits Model for Target Marketing

 Generic Marketing Strategies

CHAPTER TWELVE: MARKET RESEARCH – UNDERSTANDING THE CUSTOMER

 Why Do people Attend Events?

 Consumer Research on Events

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 Visitor and Market Area Surveys

 Sampling Methods

 Attendance Counts and Estimates

CHAPTER THIRTEEN: COMMUNICATIONS & SALES

 The Communications Mix

 Sales

 Developing and Communicating a Positive Image

 Packaging

CHAPTER FOURTEEN: EVALUATION AND IMPACT ASSESSMENT

 Evaluation Concepts and Methods

 Economic Impact Measurement and Evaluation

 Evaluation of Overall Costs and Benefits

REFERENCES

INDEX

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LIST OF FIGURES

1-1: Studying Event Management

1-2: Economic and Tourism Roles of Events

1-3: What Makes Event “Special”?

1-4: Typology of Planned events

2-1: Event Management System

3-1: Project Planning Process

3-2: Task Analysis

3-3: Critical Patch Network

3-4: Gantt Chart

3-5: Strategic Planning Process

4-1: Festival Places: Factors Affecting Design

4-2: Operations Planning Process and Elements

4-3: Operations Checklist

4-4: Environmental System for Events

5-1: Sample Goals and Objectives for Event Tourism

5-2: Roles and Strategic Choices

5-3: Event Tourism Portfolio

5-4: Event Bidding Process

5-5: Tourist Segments Associated With Events

5-6: Media Management – Stakeholder Roles and Actions

5-7: Resource Supply and Appraisal

6-1: Elements of Style

6-2: Program Portfolio

6-3: Program Life Cycle

6-4: Interactions Shaping Event Quality

6-5: Service Mapping (a)

6-6: Service Mapping (b)

6-7: Quality Gaps

7-1: Perspectives on Events

7-2: Organizations Producing Events and Their Main Goals

7-3: Multi-Organizational Event Structures

7-4: Typical Sport Event Organizational Models

7-5: Not-For-Profit Event Organization With Board of Directors and Paid Staff

7-6: Project Management Organization

7-7: Organizational Chart for a Not-for-Profit Event Incorporating a Function-Based Committee

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System (No Paid Staff)

7-8: Function-Based Committee System For Event Associations With Paid Staff

7-9: Program-Based Matrix Structure

7-10: Life-Cycle and Professionalism

7-11: Organizational Culture, Evolution, and Strategic Planning in Event Organizations

8-1: Human Resource Planning Process for Events

8-2: Types of Measurement for Performance Appraisals

9-1: Break-Even Analysis

9-2: Event Sponsorship Framework

9-3: Combined Line-Item and Program Budget

10-1: Risk Prioritization Matrix

10-2: Security Checklist

11-1: The Marketing Mix for Events

11-2: Positioning an Event

11-3: Marketing Planning Process

11-4: Segmentation Variables for Events

11-5: Benefits Model for Targeted Marketing

11-6: Practical Segmentation and marketing Strategy

12-1: Needs, Motives and Benefits Offered by Events

12-2: Seeking and Escaping Motivational Theory

12-3: Framework for Evaluating Event Motivations and Behavior

12-4: Consumer Decision-Making Process for Events

12-5: Sample Visitor Survey Questions

13-1: Advantages and Disadvantages of Advertising Media for Events

13-2: Public relations and Communications Tools for Events

13-3: Event Tourism Packaging

13-4: Framework for Targeted Event Packaging

14-1: Basic Data Needs and Methods for Event Evaluation

14-2: The Event Income Multiplier

LIST OF TABLES

3-1: American Generations

14-1: Canadian Tulip Festival - Profile and Economic Impact

14-2: Benefit-Cost Ratio for the 1985 Grand Prix

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Chapter One:

INTRODUCTION TO EVENT STUDIES, EVENT MANAGEMENT AND EVENT TOURISM

Learning Objectives

1: Be able to explain the field of “event studies”.

2: Understand the essential elements and foundations of event management as a profession.

3: Understand the nature and importance of event tourism, including the 5 main economic roles

of events.

4: Know the key disciplinary perspectives on the study of events and how they contribute to

event management.

5: Know where events fit into closely-related professional fields.

6: Learn about the nature and importance of events in society, the economy and the environment,

and how research is essential to support both event studies and event management.

7: Learn key terminology for the events field and the typology of planned events.

8: Understand what makes some events “special”.

DO YOU WANT TO BE A PROFESSIONAL EVENT MANAGER?

The profession of event management is exciting, fast-growing and global. It presents a

kaleidoscope of opportunities for careers in public, private and not-for-profit organizations, and

for personal challenges and artistic creativity. You can apply your skills to all types of events in

many different event facilities and settings, or concentrate on sports, festivals, meetings,

exhibitions or other specific types. The scope for invention and mobility is almost limitless.

Or you could start an event-related business, being a party or meeting planner, a sport marketing

consultant, a festival or entertainment producer, or a trade show designer. Knowledge of how

events are produced, managed and marketed will give you countless opportunities to provide the

industry with services and products for profit.

Events are also very important as social services and for fund raising to support a large number

of causes, giving you scope to contribute to society and the environment. Whatever your motives

and interests, there is something for you in the world of events.

To start thinking seriously about event-related career paths, read the profiles of professionals in

this text. Also read the profiles of event-producing organizations, each of which provides a

number of career paths related to events.

WHAT IS EVENT MANAGEMENT?

“Event management” encompasses the planning and production of all types of events, including

meetings and conventions, exhibitions, festivals and other cultural celebrations, sport

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competitions, entertainment spectaculars, private functions and numerous other special events.

Event managers might also be required to form and administer the organizations that produce or

govern events. Skills in event management will also be useful for careers in related fields such as

tourism, hospitality, arts, culture, sports, recreation and leisure.

Event management used to be a sideline to other occupations; something one did because events

were required. Or people became event planners and managers because their particular skills

were needed, and they could adapt. All that has changed, and within the last fifteen years event

management has been given formal academic status in many colleges and universities. Today‟s

event manager is better educated, much more sophisticated in terms of the fundamental

management skills, and more versatile. What‟s more, there are numerous other professionals,

such as in sport, recreation or arts management, who need to study event management in order to

fulfill their responsibilities.

At the same time, the event “industry” has surged ahead in terms of the number and size of

events, their economic, cultural and social significance, and media coverage. There is no room

for unprofessional conduct, and demands for professional accountability are ever-increasing.

What‟s more, today‟s professional event manager has skills and experience that can adapt to all

types of events in many different settings; it is no longer desirable or necessary to be confined to

one specific event-related job within a company, facility or organization.

In this book all the fundamentals of event management are provided for the student interested in

a professional career, or interested in adding event management to other professional skill sets.

Readers will first be presented in this chapter with the academic context for their profession - a

field I have termed Event Studies. You will see how it is necessary to draw on many other

disciplines and fields, plus the basics of management, before specializing in one or more aspects

of event management. Readers will also be informed of the ways in which events are produced

and managed as part of sports, arts, hospitality and other professional management careers.

Chapter Two gets to the heart of event management careers and professionalism. A number of

professionals are profiled, as well as professional associations representing the key

specializations within event management. Certification and ethics are discussed in this context.

In the subsequent chapters key management functions are covered in detail, including planning,

organizing, marketing and evaluation. Special attention is given to a number of topics of crucial

significance within the world of events, such as risk management, project planning, sponsorship

and logistics. Throughout the book the connections between events and tourism are stressed.

Tourism is not covered in depth in most event management texts, but I believe it is important for

students of tourism to understand how events are managed, and for event managers to know

more about the important tourism market and the tourism-related roles and impacts of events.

EVENT STUDIES

Not only are events produced increasingly by professional event managers, but a field of study

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and research has recently developed to support this profession and its industry. Professionals

calling themselves “event manager” should be able to explain what is unique about events, why

they are important to society and the economy, and how they are evolving. If your career or job

involves the production, co-ordination, marketing or evaluation of events, you want to know that

your efforts are important and valued.

“Event studies” is a field of research and teaching focused on the nature and importance of events

in society, the economy and the environment. Learning more about events directly contributes to

increased professionalism in event management. Event studies borrows from other fields and

academic disciplines, including anthropology, history, sociology, psychology, leisure studies,

sport and business management, art administration, geography, planning, design and economics.

Event managers, to the extent that they learn from their experiences and communicate that

knowledge to others, also contribute to developing the filed.

Much of what has been written about event management, marketing and impacts makes a

contribution to greater understanding of the phenomenon of events. While event management

necessarily focuses on planned events with a social or economic purpose, event studies has a

somewhat broader scope of concern. There are many unplanned events to be studied. Consider

the protests and riots that increasingly accompany gatherings of political or business leaders. Are

they planned or spontaneous? Do they reflect in any way our approach to festival production or

publicity stunts? What is the boundary between what Boorstin (1961) called “pseudo events” and

real news? In the modern world, are the distinctions slipping or important?

Figure 1-1 (“Studying Event Management”) illustrates a conceptual framework for connecting

event studies, management fundamentals, and event management. The model was first published

in the research journal Event Management, Vol. 6(1), 2000, and revised in 2002 (Getz 2002a),

in large part to mark the changing of its name from Festival Management and Event Tourism to

Event Management. This change specifically recognized the facts that event management was

becoming an accepted field of study and that its contents applied to all types of event and event

settings.

Interest in defining the body of knowledge associated with event management is growing. Julia

Silvers (CSEP) has a website dealing with this subject www.juliasilvers.com/embok.htm). She

defines types of events and a “knowledge domain structure” in which the basic “domains” are

administration, operations, marketing and risk management. Similarly, the International

Association of Assembly Managers has a Body of Knowledge website that explicitly includes

many elements of event management. (www.iaam.org/ProfDev/BOK/BOKcore.htm).

The basic premise is that a profession must be founded on a distinct body of theory and

knowledge, and we have to blend management with event studies. The management

fundamentals are all covered in this book, although a greater level of detail in one or all of the

management functions will be required for anyone seeking a specialized or senior management

position.

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Another premise of the model is that “specialization” should occur only after a firm foundation

has been attained. Traditionally, the field of event management has been fragmented by type of

event, with little if any overlap or transfer. For example, “meeting planners” are well-established

but largely confined to the meeting and convention business, while festival managers and sport

event professionals have also specialized on certain types of events. There is no good reason why

this should be the case in the future.

Specialization has also occurred over time according to “setting”. Those who manage specific

types of facility, including hotel/resort manager, arts/exhibition centers, or sport halls, and those

involved with parks, attractions (such as zoos), or destination marketing, all have somewhat

unique perspectives on events. Again, there is no good reason why event professionals cannot

work well in all these settings. Other forms of specialization can occur by reference to program

(the types of activities or experiences created by the event) or target market (e.g., events for

seniors, spectator versus participant sports, etc.).

Where does event tourism fit? It is a large and economically important specialization, but there

are two ways of looking at it. The first is that event tourism is specialization based on setting:

those who market destinations are very interested in bidding on, producing and facilitating events

for their tourism and economic benefits. The other perspective is that of target market: tourists

have different needs from residents, and that fact helps shape event programming at attractions

and event-specific venues. The type of event is not so important in a tourism context, nor is the

program of greatest concern. In other words, event tourism is primarily a specialization based on

marketing.

Research

Thought has been given to developing a research agenda for event studies and event

management. At a conference held in Sydney in 2000, researchers, academics and practitioners

considered where the field and the profession were heading and how research would support

these changes. The paper by Getz explicitly laid out a research agenda, and in a subsequent

presentation in Ireland (Getz 2003) expanded the paper to include advice on how various

stakeholders should be brought together to reach consensus on research needs.

Australians were probably the first to develop a national research agenda, linked to the

Cooperative Research Centres for Sustainable Tourism initiative (see Harris et al 2001).

Research Note:

R. Harris, L. Jago, J. Allen, and M. Huyskens, 2001. Towards an Australian Event

Research Agenda: First Steps, Event Management 6(4) 213-221).

Three groups in Australia (academics, practitioners and government officials) were asked

to rank the importance of research needs. Practitioners, as expected, were more concerned

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with management topics, the top ones being related to learning more about sponsorship,

identifying needs and motivations of attendees, market segmentation, and determining

why events fail. Government officials picked reasons for event failure as their top

research agenda item, followed by identification of risk management factors and

developing standardized research tools and methods. Academics chose risk management

strategy formulation as the number one research need, followed by valuing the events

industry and reasons for event failure.

DISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES ON EVENTS

The major disciplines within social sciences and the humanities all make important contributions

to event studies and event management. Business, public and not-for-profit management studies

are increasingly bringing new insights, and even engineering makes its contribution through

project management techniques. There is no room in a single book for detailed examination of all

these connections, but a brief introduction to the main contributing disciplines will benefit the

student by providing academic context and showing where additional insights can be discovered.

Research notes accompany each disciplinary perspective, to draw your attention to important

contributions.

History and Events

Planned events of all kinds have been an integral part of civilization for thousands of years, from

political assemblies to sport competitions, feasts and revelry to religious celebrations. What

explains the vast history of events? Some would suggest that people are simply gregarious, social

creatures, but that in itself does not explain the economic and cultural importance attached to

planned events, the formalization of related professions, or creation of specialist venues. It could

easily be argued that events are a fundamental and essential human experience, both rooted in

culture and at the same time helping to define our civilizations. The evolution and life-cycle of

events is an important historical topic with management implications, as examined by Sofield

and Li (1998).

Research Note:

T. Sofield and F. Li (1998). Historical Methodology and Sustainability: An 800-year-old

Festival From China. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 6(4): 267-292.

These researchers took an historical perspective on an 800-year-old festival in China,

seeking an understanding of its survival and evolution in the context of political,

sociocultural and economic forces. The Chrysanthemum Festival of Xiaolan traditionally

took place only every 60 years, and before the Communist regime took control of China

in 1949 it was last held in 1934. However, it was held three times before its next 60th

anniversary, when Communist Party officials used it to demonstrate aspects of leadership,

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authority and power in 1953, 1973 and 1979. In 1994 it was promoted as a leading

cultural tourist attraction. Analysis of the historical records was conducted, plus

participant observation by the researchers at the 1994 event and interviews with event

personnel provided contemporary insights. Sofield and Li concluded that tourism was

playing an important role in the dynamics of change in China, particularly because

heritage events that were once banned are now officially viewed as tourism “products.”

The cultural authenticity of this ancient event is beyond doubt, and it meets the definition

of a sustainable event because of this authenticity, its obvious longevity and a high level

of official and community support.

Geography and Events

The main traditions of “human geography” research are all applicable to the study of events.

Geographers have concentrated on human-resource interactions, especially spatial and temporal

patterns of human activity and including impacts on the environment. “Event geography” would

therefore, at a minimum, consist of these major themes: the spatial patterns of events and related

resource dependencies (such as a connection to agricultural products or community ethnicity);

the temporal dimension (the annual calendar of festivals), and the impacts of events on the

environment and community.

Supply-demand interactions are fertile ground for event geographers. Analysis and forecasting of

demand for a particular event or a region‟s events will in part depend on population distribution,

competition, and intervening opportunities. Along these lines, Bohlin (2000) used a traditional

tool of geographers, the distance-decay function, to exam festival-related travel in Sweden. He

found that attendance decreased with distance, although recurring and well-established events

have greater drawing power. The difficulties of forecasting event attendance have been well

noted in the literature (Pyo and Cook, 1998; Mules and McDonald, 1994; Teigland, 1996;

Spilling, 1998). Demand mapping (e.g., Verhoven, Wall and Cottrell, 1998) has also been used

as an event marketing tool.

Getz (1991) illustrated several models of potential event tourism patterns in a region. One option

is clustering events in service centers, as opposed to dispersing them over a large, rural area.

These are related to the concept of "attractiveness" and also have implications for the distribution

of benefits and costs. Analysis of the zones of influence of events has been undertaken by

Teigland (1996) specific to the Lillehammer (Norway) Winter Olympics, and this method has

implications for event planning, especially regarding mega events with multiple venues. The

elements of these zones of influence are the gateways, venue locations, tourist flows, transport

management, and displacement of other activities.

Robert Janiskee‟s many contributions to the geography of events deserve special recognition (see

the Bibliography for a full listing), including development of a huge database of American

festivals.