Environmental Analysis by Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors: Fundamentals

Series Editor: David J. Lockwood

Nanostructure Science and Technology

Ligia Maria Moretto

Kurt Kalcher Editors

Environmental

Analysis by

Electrochemical

Sensors and

Biosensors

Volume 1: Fundamentals

Nanostructure Science and Technology

Series Editor:

David J. Lockwood, FRSC

National Research Council of Canada

Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/6331

Ligia Maria Moretto • Kurt Kalcher

Editors

Environmental Analysis

by Electrochemical

Sensors and Biosensors

Fundamentals

Volume 1

Editors

Ligia Maria Moretto

Department of Molecular Sciences

and Nanosystems

University Ca’ Foscari of Venice

Venice, Italy

Kurt Kalcher

Institute of Chemistry

Karl-Franzens Universita¨t

Graz, Austria

ISSN 1571-5744 ISSN 2197-7976 (electronic)

ISBN 978-1-4939-0675-8 ISBN 978-1-4939-0676-5 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-1-4939-0676-5

Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London

Library of Congress Control Number: 2014949384

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Foreword

Electrochemical sensors are transforming our lives. From smoke detectors in our

homes and workplaces to handheld self-care glucose meters these devices can offer

sensitive, selective, reliable, and often cheap measurements for an ever increasing

diversity of sensing requirements. The detection and monitoring of environmental

analytes is a particularly important and demanding area in which electrochemical

sensors and biosensors find growing deployment and where new sensing opportu￾nities and challenges are constantly emerging.

This manual provides up-to-date and highly authoritative overviews of electro￾chemical sensors and biosensors as applied to environmental targets. The book

surveys the entire field of such sensors and covers not only the principles of their

design but their practical implementation and application. Of particular value is the

organizational structure. The later chapters cover the full range of environmental

analytes ensuring the book will be invaluable to environmental scientists as well as

analytical chemists.

I predict the book will have a major impact in the area of environmental analysis

by highlighting the strengths of existing sensor technology whilst at the same time

stimulating further research.

Oxford University

Oxford, UK

Richard G. Compton

v

Preface

Dear Reader,

We are pleased that you have decided to use Environmental Analysis by Electro￾chemical Sensors and Biosensors either as a monograph or as a handbook for your

scientific work. The manual comprises two volumes and represents an overview of

an intersection of two scientific areas of essential importance: environmental

chemistry and electrochemical sensing.

Since the invention of the glass electrode in 1906 by Max Cremer, electrochem￾ical sensors represent the oldest type of chemical sensor and are ubiquitously

present in all chemical labs, industries, as well as in many fields of our everyday

life. The development of electrochemical sensors exploiting new measuring tech￾nologies makes them useful for chemical analysis and characterization of analytes

in practically all physical phases - gases, liquids and solids - and in different

matrices in industrial, food, biomedical, and enviromental fields. They have

become indispensible tools in analytical chemistry for reliable, precise, and inex￾pensive determination of many compounds, as single shot, repetitive, continuous,

or even permanent analytical devices. Environmental analytical chemistry demands

highly sensitive, robust, and reliable sensors, able to give fast responses even for

analysis in the field and in real time, a requirement which can be fulfilled in many

cases only by electrochemical sensing elements.

The idea for this manual was brought to us by Springer. The intention was to

build up an introduction and a concise but exhaustive description of the state of the

art in scientific and practical work on environmental analysis, focused on electro￾chemical sensors.

To manage the enormous extent of the topic, the manual is split into two

volumes. The first one, covering the basic concepts and fundamentals of both

environmental analysis and electrochemcial sensors,

1. gives a short introduction and description of all environments which are subject

to monitoring by electrochemical sensors, including extraterrestrial ones, as a

particularly interesting and exciting topic;

vii

2. provides essential background information on electroanalytical techniques and

fundamental as well as advanced sensor technology;

3. supplies numerous examples of applications along with the concepts and strat￾egies of environmental analysis in all the various spheres of the environment and

with the principles and strategies of electrochemical sensor design.

The second volume is more focused on practical applications, mostly comple￾mentary to the examples given in volume I, and

1. overviews and critically comments on sensors proposed for the determination of

inorganic and organic analytes and pollutants, including emerging contaminants,

as well as for the measurement of global parameters of environmental

importance;

2. reviews briefly the mathematical background of data evaluation.

We hope that we have succeeded in fulfilling all these objectives by supplying

general and specific data as well as thorough background knowledge to make

Environmental Analysis with Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors more than

a simple handbook but, rather, a desk reference manual.

It is obvious that a compilation of chapters dealing with so many different

specialized areas in analytical and environmental chemistry requires the expertise

of many scientists. Therefore, in the first place we would like to thank all the

contributors to this book for all the time and effort spent in compiling and critically

commenting on research, and the data and conclusions derived from it.

Of course, we would like to particularly acknowledge all the people from

Springer who have been involved with the process of publication. Our cordial

thanks are addressed to Kenneth Howell, who accompanied us during all the

primary steps and, later during the process of revision and editing together with

Abira Sengupta, was always available and supportive in the most professional and

pleasant manner.

Furthermore, we are indebted to a number of our collaborators, colleagues, and

friends for kindly providing us literature and ideas, and stimulating us with fruitful

discussions. We would also like to thank all the coworkers who did research

together with us and under our supervision, as well as all the scientific community

working in the field of environmental sensing.

In particular, we would like to express our gratitude to all the persons, especially

to our families, who supported us in the period of the preparation of the book.

Last but not least, we will be glad for comments from readers and others

interested in this book, since we are aware that some contributions or useful details

may have escaped our attention. Such feedback is always welcome and will also be

reflected in our future work.

Venice, Italy Ligia Maria Moretto

Graz, Austria Kurt Kalcher

December 2013

viii Preface

About the Editors

Ligia Maria Moretto graduated in Chemical Engineering at the Federal Univer￾sity of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, and received her Ph.D. in 1994 from the

University Ca’ Foscari of Venice with a thesis entitled “Ion-exchange voltammetry

for the determination of copper and mercury. Application to seawater.” Her aca￾demic career began at the University of Caxias do Sul, Brazil, and continued at the

Research Institute of Nuclear Energy, Sao Paulo, Brazil. In 1996 she completed the

habilitation as researcher in analytical chemistry at the University Ca’ Foscari of

Venice. Working at the Laboratory of Electrochemical Sensors, her research field

has been the development of electrochemical sensor and biosensors based on

modified electrodes, the study of gold arrays and ensembles of nanoelectrodes,

with particular attention to environmental applications. She has published more

than 60 papers, several book chapters, and has presented about 90 contributions at

international conferences, resulting in more than 1,100 citations. Prof. Moretto

collaborates as invited professor and invited researcher with several institutions in

Brazil, France, Argentina, Canada, and the USA.

Kurt Kalcher completed his studies at the Karl-Franzens University (KFU) with a

dissertation in inorganic chemistry entitled “Contributions to the Chemistry of

Cyantrichloride, CINCCI2”; he also received his Ph.D. in 1980 from the same

institution. In 1981 he then did postdoctoral work at the Nuclear Research Center

in Ju¨lich (Germany) under the supervision of Prof. Nu¨rnberg and Dr. Valenta, and

conducted intensive electroanalytical research while he was there. Prof. Kalcher

continued his academic career at KFU with his habilitation on chemically modified

carbon paste electrodes in analytical chemistry in 1988. Since then, he has

been employed there as an associate professor. His research interests include the

development of electrochemical sensors and biosensors for the determination of

inorganic and biological analytes on the basis of carbon paste, screen-printed carbon,

ix

and boron-doped diamond electrodes, as well as design, automation, and data han￾dling with small analytical devices using microprocessors. He has published around

200 papers and has presented about 200 contributions at international conferences.

These activities have resulted in more than 3,100 citations. Prof. Kalcher has

received numerous guest professor position offers in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Poland,

Slovenia, and Thailand.

x About the Editors

Contents of Volume 1

Part I Environmental Analysis

1 Introduction to Electroanalysis of Environmental Samples ..... 3

Ivan Sˇvancara and Kurt Kalcher

2 Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Kenneth A. Sudduth, Hak-Jin Kim, and Peter P. Motavalli

3 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Eduardo Pinilla Gil

4 Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Andrea Gambaro, Elena Gregoris, and Carlo Barbante

5 Biosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Adela Maghear and Robert Sa˘ndulescu

6 Extraterrestrial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

Kyle M. McElhoney, Glen D. O’Neil, and Samuel P. Kounaves

Part II Fundamental Concepts of Sensors and Biosensors

7 Electrochemical Sensor and Biosensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

Cecilia Cristea, Veronica Haˆrceaga˘, and Robert Sa˘ndulescu

8 Electrochemical Sensors in Environmental Analysis . . . . . . . . . . 167

Cecilia Cristea, Bogdan Feier, and Robert Sandulescu

9 Potentiometric Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

Eric Bakker

10 Controlled Potential Techniques in Amperometric Sensing . . . . . . 239

Ligia Maria Moretto and R. Seeber

xi

11 Biosensors on Enzymes, Tissues, and Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

Xuefei Guo, Julia Kuhlmann, and William R. Heineman

12 DNA Biosensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313

Filiz Kuralay and Arzum Erdem

13 Immunosensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

Petr Skla´dal

14 Other Types of Sensors: Impedance-Based Sensors,

FET Sensors, Acoustic Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

Christopher Brett

Part III Sensor Electrodes and Practical Concepts

15 From Macroelectrodes to Microelectrodes: Theory

and Electrode Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373

Salvatore Daniele and Carlo Bragato

16 Electrode Materials (Bulk Materials and Modification) . . . . . . . . . 403

Alain Walcarius, Mathieu Etienne, Gre´goire Herzog,

Veronika Urbanova, and Neus Vila

17 Nanosized Materials in Amperometric Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497

Fabio Terzi and Chiara Zanardi

18 Electrochemical Sensors: Practical Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529

Anchalee Samphao and Kurt Kalcher

19 Gas Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569

Ulrich Guth, Wilfried Vonau, and Wolfram Oelßner

Part IV Sensors with Advanced Concepts

20 Sensor Arrays: Arrays of Micro- and Nanoelectrodes . . . . . . . . . . 583

Michael Ongaro and Paolo Ugo

21 Sensors and Lab-on-a-Chip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615

Alberto Escarpa and Miguel A. Lo´pez

22 Electronic Noses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651

Corrado Di Natale

23 Remote Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667

Tomer Noyhouzer and Daniel Mandler

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691

xii Contents of Volume 1

Contents of Volume 2

Part I Sensors for Measurement of Global Parameters

1 Chemical Oxygen Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719

Usman Latif and Franz L. Dickert

2 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729

Usman Latif and Franz L. Dickert

3 Dissolved Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735

Usman Latif and Franz L. Dickert

4 pH Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751

Usman Latif and Franz L. Dickert

Part II Sensors and Biosensors for Inorganic Compounds

of Environmental Importance

5 Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781

Ivan Sˇvancara and Zuzana Navra´tilova´

6 Non-metal Inorganic Ions and Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827

Ivan Sˇvancara and Zuzana Navra´tilova´

7 Electroanalysis and Chemical Speciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841

Zuzana Navra´tilova´ and Ivan Sˇvancara

8 Nanoparticle-Emerging Contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855

Emma J.E. Stuart and Richard G. Compton

xiii

Part III Sensors and Biosensors for Organic Compounds

of Environmental Importance

9 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 881

Lu´cio Angnes

10 Surfactants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905

Elmorsy Khaled and Hassan Y. Aboul-Enein

11 Determination of Aromatic Hydrocarbons

and Their Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 931

K. Peckova-Schwarzova, J. Zima, and J. Barek

12 Explosives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 965

Jiri Barek, Jan Fischer, and Joseph Wang

13 Pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 981

Elmorsy Khaled and Hassan Y. Aboul-Enein

Part IV Electrochemical Sensors for Gases of Environmental

Importance

14 Volatile Organic Compounds ............................. 1023

Tapan Sarkar and Ashok Mulchandani

15 Sulphur Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047

Tjarda J. Roberts

16 Nitrogen Compounds: Ammonia, Amines and NOx ............ 1069

Jonathan P. Metters and Craig E. Banks

17 Carbon Oxides ........................................ 1111

Nobuhito Imanaka and Shinji Tamura

Part V Data Treatment of Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors

18 Data Treatment of Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors ..... 1137

Elio Desimoni and Barbara Brunetti

Index ................................................... 1153

xiv Contents of Volume 2