Encyclopedia of World History - Volume I The Ancient World Prehistoric Eras to 600 C. E.

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF

WORLD HISTORY

The Ancient World

Prehistoric Eras to 600 c.e.

VOLUME I

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF

WORLD HISTORY

Volume I

The Ancient World

Prehistoric Eras to 600 c.e.

Volume II

The Expanding World

600 c.e. to 1450

Volume III

The First Global Age

1450 to 1750

Volume IV

Age of Revolution and Empire

1750 to 1900

Volume V

Crisis and Achievement

1900 to 1950

Volume VI

The Contemporary World

1950 to the Present

Volume VII

Primary Documents

Master Index

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF

WORLD HISTORY

The Ancient World

Prehistoric Eras to 600 c.e.

VOLUME I

edited by

Marsha E. Ackermann

Michael J. Schroeder

Janice J. Terry

Jiu-Hwa Lo Upshur

Mark F. Whitters

Encyclopedia of World History

Copyright © 2008 by Marsha E. Ackermann, Michael J. Schroeder, Janice J. Terry, Jiu-Hwa Lo

Upshur, and Mark F. Whitters

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Encyclopedia of world history / edited by Marsha E. Ackermann . . . [et al.].

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-8160-6386-4 (hc : alk. paper)

1. World history—Encyclopedias. I. Ackermann, Marsha E.

D21.E5775 2007

903—dc22

2007005158

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF

WORLD HISTORY

Volume I

CONTENTS

About the Editors vi

Foreword vii

Historical Atlas viii

List of Articles ix

List of Contributors xiii

Chronology xvii

Major Themes xxix

Articles A to Z 1

Resource Guide 509

Index 513

Marsha E. Ackermann received a Ph.D. in American culture from the University of Michigan. She

is the author of the award-winning book Cool Comfort: America’s Romance with Air-Conditioning

and has taught U.S. history and related topics at the University of Michigan, Michigan State Uni￾versity, and Eastern Michigan University.

Michael J. Schroeder received a Ph.D. in history from the University of Michigan and currently

teaches at Eastern Michigan University. Author of the textbook The New Immigrants: Mexican

Americans, he has published numerous articles on Latin American history.

Janice J. Terry received a Ph.D. from the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of

London, and is professor emeritus of Middle East history at Eastern Michigan University. Her

latest book is U.S. Foreign Policy in the Middle East: The Role of Lobbies and Special Interest

Groups. She is also a coauthor of the world history textbooks The 20th Century: A Brief Global

History and World History.

Jiu-Hwa Lo Upshur received a Ph.D. from the University of Michigan and is professor emeritus of

Chinese history at Eastern Michigan University. She is a coauthor of the world history textbooks

The 20th Century: A Brief Global History and World History.

Mark F. Whitters received a Ph.D. in religion and history from the Catholic University of America

and currently teaches at Eastern Michigan University. His publications include The Epistle of Sec￾ond Baruch: A Study in Form and Message.

About the Editors

vi

Foreword

The seven-volume Encyclopedia of World History is a comprehensive reference to the most impor￾tant events, themes, and personalities in world history. The encyclopedia covers the entire range

of human history in chronological order—from the prehistoric eras and early civilizations to our

contemporary age—using six time periods that will be familiar to students and teachers of world

history. This reference work provides a resource for students—and the general public—with con￾tent that is closely aligned to the National Standards for World History and the College Board’s

Advanced Placement World History course, both of which have been widely adopted by states and

school districts.

This encyclopedia is one of the fi rst to offer a balanced presentation of human history for a truly

global perspective of the past. Each of the six chronological volumes begins with an in-depth essay

that covers fi ve themes common to all periods of world history. They discuss such important issues

as technological progress, agriculture and food production, warfare, trade and cultural interactions,

and social and class relationships. These major themes allow the reader to follow the development

of the world’s major regions and civilizations and make comparisons across time and place.

The encyclopedia was edited by a team of fi ve accomplished historians chosen for being special￾ists in different areas and eras of world history, as well as for having taught world history in the

classroom. They and many other experts are responsible for writing the approximately 2,000 signed

entries based on the latest scholarship. Additionally, each article is cross-referenced with relevant

other ones in that volume. A chronology is included to provide students with a chronological ref￾erence to major events in the given era. In each volume an array of full-color maps provides geo￾graphic context, while numerous illustrations provide visual contexts to the material. Each article

also concludes with a bibliography of several readily available pertinent reference works in English.

Historical documents included in the seventh volume provide the reader with primary sources, a

feature that is especially important for students. Each volume also includes its own index, while the

seventh volume contains a master index for the set.

Marsha E. Ackermann

Michael J. Schroeder

Janice J. Terry

Jiu-Hwa Lo Upshur

Mark F. Whitters

Eastern Michigan University

vii

The World: From Prehistory to 10,000 b.c.e. M1

The Beginning of Agriculture, 9000–500 b.c.e. M2

Civilizations in Europe and Asia, 3500–1500 b.c.e. M3

Ancient Mesopotamia, 3000–2000 b.c.e. M4

Ancient Egypt, 2795–1640 b.c.e. M5

Babylonian Empire, c. 1750–c. 1595 b.c.e. M6

Egyptian Asiatic Empire under Tuthmosis III, 1450 b.c.e. M7

Trade Routes of the Mycenaeans and Minoans M8

Ancient Palestine, 925–722 b.c.e. M9

Asian Empires, 600 b.c.e. M10

Assyrian and Babylonian Empires, 950–539 b.c.e. M11

The Persian Empire M12

Greek and Phoenician Routes, c. 500 b.c.e. M13

Persian Wars, 492–479 b.c.e. M14

Greece during the Peloponnesian War, 431–404 b.c.e. M15

Macedonia under Philip II, 359–336 b.c.e. M16

The Empire of Alexander the Great, 334–323 b.c.e. M17

Hellenistic World, c. 300 b.c.e. M18

The Punic Wars, 264–200 b.c.e. M19

Roman Expansion, 240 b.c.e.–30 c.e. M20

The Mauryan Empire, 325–260 b.c.e. M21

Palestine at the Time of Christ M22

China during the Han Dynasty, 202 b.c.e.–250 c.e. M23

Trade Routes of the First Century c.e. M24

Farthest Extent of the Roman Empire, under Emperor Hadrian, 117–138 c.e. M25

Crisis of the Third Century, 250–271 c.e. M26

The Roman Empire under the Tetrarchy, c. 300 c.e. M27

Parthia and the Sassanid Empire, 114–628 c.e. M28

The Rise of Constantine, 306–324 c.e. M29

Barbarian Invasions and Settlements M30

Byzantine Empire under Justinian, 527–567 c.e. M31

Major Religions in the Eastern Hemisphere, c. 600 c.e. M32

Historical Atlas

List of Maps

viii

List of Articles

A

Adrianople, Battle of (378 c.e.)

Aeneid

Aeschylus

Aesop

African city-states

African religious traditions

Ahab and Jezebel

Akhenaten and Nefertiti

Akkad

Alcibiades

Alexander the Great

Alexandria

Alexandrian literature

Ambrose

Andes: Neolithic

Antonine emperors

Anyang

apocalypticism, Jewish and

Christian

Apostles, Twelve

Arabia, pre-Islamic

Aramaeans

Archaic Greece

Arianism

Aristophanes

Aristotle

Ark of the Covenant

Armenia

Artaxerxes

Aryan invasion

Ashoka

Assyria

Athanasius

Athenian predemocracy

Augustine of Hippo

Aurelius, Marcus

Axial Age and cyclical

theories

B

Babylon, early period

Babylon, later periods

Bactria

Bamiyan Valley

Ban Biao (Pan Piao)

Baruch

Basil the Great

Benedict

Bhagavad Gita

Bible translations

Boethius

Book of the Dead

Boudicca

Brendan the Navigator

Buddhism in China

Buddhist councils

Byblos

Byzantine-Persian wars

C

Caesar, Augustus

Caesar, Julius

Cambyses II

Cappadocians

Caracalla, Edict of (212 c.e.)

Carthage

caste

Cato, Marcus Porcius (the Younger)

cave paintings

Celts

Ceylon

Chandragupta II

Chang’an

choregic poetry

Choson

Christian Dualism (Gnosticism)

Christianity, early

ix

Chrysostom, John

Cicero

classical art and architecture, Greek

Classical Period, Greek

Cleisthenes

Clement of Alexandria

Code of Justinian

Confucian Classics

Confucianism as a state ideology

Confucius

Constantine the Great

Constantinople

Coptic Christian Church

cuneiform

Cyclades

Cyril of Alexandria

Cyrus II

D

Damascus and Aleppo

Daoism (Taoism)

Darius I

David

Delphic oracle

Demosthenes

Desert Fathers and Mothers

Deuteronomy

Dharma Sutras

Diadochi

Diocletian

Dravidians

Druids and Picts

Duke of Zhou (Chou)

Dunhuang (Tun-huang)

E

Ebla

Edessa

Egeria

Egypt, culture and religion

Elam

Eleusis

Ephesus and Chalcedon, Councils of

Ephrem

Epicureanism

Era of Division (China)

Essenes

Esther, book of

Ethiopia, ancient

Etruscans

Euripides

Eusebius

Ezana

F

Fa Xian (Fa-hsien)

Fertile Crescent

First Americans

Flavian emperors

food gatherers and producers,

prehistory

G

Gandhara

Ganjin

Gaul

Gautama Buddha

Georgia, ancient

Gilgamesh

Gracchi

Great Wall of China

Greek Church

Greek city-states

Greek colonization

Greek drama

Greek mythology and pantheon

Greek oratory and rhetoric

Gregory the Great

Guangwu (Kuang-wu)

Gupta Empire

gymnasium and athletics

H

Hadrian

Hagia Sophia

Han dynasty

Hannibal

Han Wudi (Han Wu-ti)

Helena

Helen of Troy

Hellenistic art

Hellenization

heresies

Herodotus, Thucydides, and

Xenophon

Herods

Hesiod

Hezekiah

hieroglyphics

Hindu philosophy

Hippocrates, Galen, and the

Greek physicians

Hittites

Homeric epics

Hundred Schools of Philosophy

Huns

Hurrians

Hyksos

I

imperial cult, Roman

Indo-Europeans

Indus civilization

Israel and Judah

J

Jainism

Jerome

Jesus (Christ) of Nazareth

Jewish revolts

Job and theodicy

John the Baptist

Jomon culture

Josephus, Flavius

Josiah

Judah ha-Nasi

Judaism, early (heterodoxies)

Judges

Julian the Apostate

Julio-Claudian emperors

Justinian I

K

Kama Sutra

Kanishka

Kautilya

Khosrow I

Kija

Kingdom of God

King’s Highway and Way of the Sea

Kush

Kushan Empire

L

Laozi (Lao Tzu) and Zhuangzi

(Chuang Tzu)

late barbarians

Latin Church

Legalism

legionaries

Leonidas

Leo the Great

libraries, ancient

x List of Articles

Libya

Linear A and B

Liu Bang (Liu Pang)

Lo-lang

Lu, Empress

Lucian

Luoyang (Loyang)

lyric poetry

M

Ma Yuan

Maccabees

Mahabharata

Maotun (Mao-t’un)

Marathon, Battle of (490 b.c.e.)

Marcellinus, Ammianus

Mari

Marius and Sulla

martyrologies

Mauryan Empire

Maximus the Confessor

Maya: Classic Period

Maya: Preclassic Period

Medes, Persians, Elamites

Megasthenes

Mencius

Meng Tian (Meng T’ien)

Meroë

Mesoamerica: Archaic and

Preclassic Periods

Mesoamerica: Classic Period

messianism

Middle Kingdom, Egypt

migration patterns of the Americas

Milan, Edict of (313 c.e.)

Minoans

Mishnah

Mittani

Mohenjo-Daro

monasticism

Moses

Mozi (Mo Tzu)

Mycenae

mystery cults

N

Nabataeans

Native Americans: chronologies

and peoples

Native Americans: regional

adaptations

Nebuchadnezzar II

Neolithic age

Neoplatonism

Nero

Nestorius and the Nestorian

Church

New Comedy

New Kingdom, Egypt

Nicaea, Council of

Nineveh

Nubia

O

Odovacar

Old Kingdom, Egypt

Olmecs

Olympic Games

Oriental Orthodox Churches

Origen

Ostracism

Ostrogoths and Lombards

P

paideia

paleoanthropology

Paleolithic age

Palmyra

Panathenaic Festival

Parthenon

Pataliputra

Patriarchs, biblical

patricians

Patrick

Paul

Pax Romana

Peisistratus

Peloponnesian War

Pericles

persecutions of the church

Persepolis, Susa, and Ecbatana

Persian invasions

Persian myth

Petronius

pharaoh

Pharisees

Philip of Macedon

Philo

Phoenician colonies

pilgrimage

Platonism

polis

Pompeii and Herculaneum

Pompey

Pontius Pilate

pre-Socratic philosophy

prophets

Psalms

Pseudepigrapha and the Apocrypha

Ptolemies

pyramids of Giza

Pyrrhus

Pythagoras

Q

Qin (Ch’in) dynasty

Qumran

R

Ramayana

Ramses I

Ramses II

Ravenna

Red Eyebrow Rebellion

religious inclinations, prehistory

Roman Empire

Roman golden and silver ages

Roman historians

Roman pantheon and myth

Roman poetry

Rome: buildings, engineers

Rome: decline and fall

Rome: founding

Rome: government

Rosetta Stone

S

Sadducees

Sakyas

San and Khoi tribes

Sanskrit

Sappho

Sargon of Akkad

Sassanid Empire

Saul

scribes

Sea Peoples

Second Sophistic

Seleucid Empire

Seneca

Septimus Severus

Servant Songs of Isaiah

Shang dynasty

List of Articles xi

Shintoism

Silk Road

Sima Qian (Ssu-ma Ch’ien)

Simeon the Stylite

Sinai, Mount

Six Schools of classical Hindu

philosophy

Socrates

Soga clan

Sogdians

Solomon

Solon

sophism

Sophocles

Spartacus

Stoicism

Suiko

Sumer

Sunzi (Sun Tzu)

Syracuse

Syriac culture and church

T

Talmud

Tantrism

Teotihuacán

Tetrarchy

Thebes

Themistocles

Theodoric

Theodosius I

Theravada and Mahayana

Buddhism

Three Kingdoms, China

Three Kingdoms, Korea

Toba (T’o-pa) dynasty

Torah

Trajan

Tripitaka

Triumvirate

Troy

Trung sisters

Turabdin

U

Ugarit

Ulfi las

Ur

V

Vardhamana Mahavira

Vedas

Vedic age

Vercingetorix

Visigoth kingdom of

Spain

W

Wang Mang

Wei Man (Wiman)

Wen and Wu

wisdom literature

X

Xerxes

Xia (Hsia) dynasty

Xiang Yu (Hsiang Yu)

Xiongnu (Hsiung-nu)

Xunzi (Hsun Tzu)

Y

Yamato clan and state

Yao, Shun, and Yu

Yayoi culture

Yellow Emperor (Huangdi

or Huang Ti)

Yellow Turban Rebellion

Yemen

Yuezhi (Yueh-chih)

Z

Zakkai, Yohanan ben

Zhang Qian (Chang Ch’ien)

Zhou (Chou) dynasty

Zoroastrianism

xii List of Articles

List of Contributors

Shelley Allsop

Deakin University

Mehrdad Amiri

Independent Scholar

John H. Barnhill

Independent Scholar

James S. Baugess

Columbus State Community

College

Melissa Benne

St. Charles Community College

Mark Aaron Bond

Independent Scholar

Dewayne Bryant

Regions University

Emiliano J. Buis

University of Buenos Aires

John Barclay Burns

George Mason University

William E. Burns

George Washington University

R. O’Brian Carter

Berry College

P. Richard Choi

Andrews University

Brian A. Cogan

Molloy College

Justin Corfi eld

Geelong Grammar School

Kevin Daugherty

Department of Resource

Development, Pokagon

Band, Potawatomi

Indians

Tim Davis

Columbus State Community

College

Abbe Allen DeBolt

Ohio University

George Raleigh Derr III

Explorer Charter School

Stefano Fait

University of St. Andrews

Peter Feinman

Institute of History, Archaeology,

and Education

Scott Fitzsimmons

University of Calgary, Canada

Allen Fromherz

University of St. Andrews

Silvana A. Gaeta

University of Buenos Aires

Joseph R. Gerber

Regis University

Mohammad Gharipour

Georgia Institute of Technology

Gertrude Gillette

Ava Maria University

xiii

xiv List of Contributors

James A. Grady

Vanderbilt University

Stephen Griffi n

San Diego State University

Lowell Handy

American Theological Library

Association

Angela Kim Harkins

Fairfi eld University

Franklin T. Harkins

Fordham University

Alecia Harper

University of South Carolina

Matthew T. Herbst

University of California, San Diego

John Hobbins

Independent Scholar

Arthur Holst

Widener University

Cornelia Horn

St. Louis University

Adam R. Hornbuckle

Independent Scholar

Jeffrey M. Hunt

Brown University

Joel Itzkowitz

Wayne State University

Russell James

University of West Florida

Mark D. Janzen

University of Memphis

Vickey Kalambakal

Independent Scholar

Daniel A. Keating

Sacred Heart Seminary

Faramarz Khojasteh

Independent Scholar

Bill Kte’pi

Independent Scholar

Jody Vaccaro Lewis

Dominican House of Studies,

Washington, D.C.

Kirk R. MacGregor

University of Iowa

Leo J. Mahoney

Mohave Community College

Jonah B. Mancini

Trinity Evangelical Divinity

School, Hebrew University

Patit Paban Mishra

Sambalpur University

Diego I. Murguia

University of Buenos Aires

John F. Murphy, Jr.

American Military University

Steve Napier

Miami University, Ohio

M. O’Connor

Catholic University

of America

Andrew Pettman

Independent Scholar

Robert R. Phenix, Jr.

St. Louis University

Elizabeth Purdy

Independent Scholar

Sadhansu S. Rath

Sambalpur University

Khodadad Rezakhani

University of California,

Los Angeles

Annette Richardson

Independent Scholar

James Roames

University of Toronto

Aaron D. Rubin

Penn State University

Philip C. Schmitz

Eastern Michigan University

M. J. Schroeder

Eastern Michigan University

Matt J. Schumann

Eastern Michigan University

Marc Schwarz

University of New

Hampshire

James E. Seelye, Jr.

University of Toledo

Grant R. Shafer

Washtenaw Community

College

Trevor Shelley

Independent Scholar

Eric Smith

Nebraska Christian College

Olena V. Smyntyna

Mechnikov National

University

Jason A. Staples

University of Calgary

Samaya L. Sukha

University of Melbourne

Janice J. Terry

Eastern Michigan University

Lana Thompson

Florida Atlantic

University