Electrical Engineer's Reference Book

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Electrical

Engineer's

Reference

Book

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Important notice

Many practical techniques described in this book involve potentially dangerous applications of electricity and

engineering equipment. The authors, editors and publishers cannot take responsibility for any personal, professional

or financial risk involved in carrying out these techniques, or any resulting injury, accident or loss. The techniques

described in this book should only be implemented by professional and fully qualified electrical engineers using their

own professional judgement and due regard to health and safety issues.

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Electrical

Engineer's

Reference

Book

Sixteenth edition

M. A. Laughton CEng., FIEE

D. J. Warne CEng., FIEE

OXFORD AMSTERDAM BOSTON NEW YORK

LONDON PARIS SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO

SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYO

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Newnes

An imprint of Elsevier Science

Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP

200 Wheeler Road, Burlington, MA 01803

A division of Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd

A member of the Reed Elsevier plc group

First published in 1945 by George Newnes Ltd

Fifteenth edition 1993

Sixteenth edition 2003

Copyright # Elsevier Science, 2003. All rights reserved

No part of this publication may be

reproduced in any material form (including photocopying or

storing in any medium by electronic means and whether or not

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of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90

Tottenham Court Road, London, England W1T 4LP.

Applications for the copyright holder's written permission to

reproduce any part of this publication should be addressed

to the publishers

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the

British Library

ISBN 0 7506 46373

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Typeset in India by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd,

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Printed and bound in Great Britain

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Contents

Preface

Section A ± General Principles

1 Units, Mathematics and Physical Quantities

International unit system . Mathematics . Physical

quantities . Physical properties . Electricity

2 Electrotechnology

Nomenclature . Thermal effects . Electrochemical effects .

Magnetic field effects . Electric field effects .

Electromagnetic field effects . Electrical discharges

3 Network Analysis

Introduction . Basic network analysis . Power-system

network analysis

Section B ± Materials & Processes

4 Fundamental Properties of Materials

Introduction . Mechanical properties . Thermal properties .

Electrically conducting materials . Magnetic materials .

Dielectric materials . Optical materials . The plasma

state

5 Conductors and Superconductors

Conducting materials . Superconductors

6 Semiconductors, Thick and Thin-Film

Microcircuits

Silicon, silicon dioxide, thick- and thin-film technology .

Thick- and thin-film microcircuits

7 Insulation

Insulating materials . Properties and testing . Gaseous

dielectrics . Liquid dielectrics . Semi-fluid and fusible

materials . Varnishes, enamels, paints and lacquers . Solid

dielectrics . Composite solid/liquid dielectrics . Irradiation

effects . Fundamentals of dielectric theory . Polymeric

insulation for high voltage outdoor applications

8 Magnetic Materials

Ferromagnetics . Electrical steels including silicon

steels . Soft irons and relay steels . Ferrites . Nickel±iron

alloys . Iron±cobalt alloys . Permanent magnet materials

9 Electroheat and Materials Processing

Introduction . Direct resistance heating . Indirect resistance

heating . Electric ovens and furnaces . Induction heating .

Metal melting . Dielectric heating . Ultraviolet processes .

Plasma torches . Semiconductor plasma processing . Lasers

10 Welding and Soldering

Arc welding . Resistance welding . Fuses . Contacts . Special

alloys . Solders . Rare and precious metals . Temperature￾sensitive bimetals . Nuclear-reactor materials . Amorphous

materials

Section C ± Control

11 Electrical Measurement

Introduction . Terminology . The role of measurement

traceability in product quality . National and international

measurement standards . Direct-acting analogue measuring

instruments . Integrating (energy) metering . Electronic

instrumentation . Oscilloscopes . Potentiometers and

bridges . Measuring and protection transformers . Magnetic

measurements . Transducers . Data recording

12 Industrial Instrumentation

Introduction . Temperature . Flow . Pressure . Level

transducers . Position transducers . Velocity and

acceleration . Strain gauges, loadcells and

weighing . Fieldbus systems . Installation notes

13 Control Systems

Introduction . Laplace transforms and the transfer

function . Block diagrams . Feedback . Generally desirable

and acceptable behaviour . Stability . Classification of

system and static accuracy. Transient behaviour .

Root-locus method . Frequency-response methods .

State-space description . Sampled-data systems .

Some necessary mathematical preliminaries . Sampler and

zero-order hold . Block diagrams . Closed-loop systems .

Stability . Example . Dead-beat response . Simulation .

Multivariable control . Dealing with non linear elements .

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Disturbances . Ratio control . Transit delays . Stability .

Industrial controllers . Digital control algorithms .

Auto-tuners . Practical tuning methods

14 Digital Control Systems

Introduction . Logic families . Combinational logic . Storage .

Timers and monostables . Arithmetic circuits . Counters and

shift registers . Sequencing and event driven logic . Analog

interfacing . Practical considerations . Data sheet notations

15 Microprocessors

Introduction . Structured design of programmable logic

systems . Microprogrammable systems . Programmable

systems . Processor instruction sets . Program structures .

Reduced instruction set computers (RISC) . Software

design . Embedded systems

16 Programmable Controllers

Introduction . The programmable controller . Programming

methods . Numerics . Distributed systems and fieldbus .

Graphics . Software engineering . Safety

Section D ± Power Electronics and Drives

17 Power Semiconductor Devices

Junction diodes . Bipolar power transistors and

Darlingtons . Thyristors . Schottky barrier diodes .

MOSFET . The insulated gate bipolar

transistor (IGBT)

18 Electronic Power Conversion

Electronic power conversion principles . Switch-mode

power supplies . D.c/a.c. conversion . A.c./d.c. conversion .

A.c./a.c. conversion . Resonant techniques . Modular

systems . Further reading

19 Electrical Machine Drives

Introduction . Fundamental control requirements for electrical

machines . Drive power circuits . Drive control . Applications

and drive selection . Electromagnetic compatibility

20 Motors and Actuators

Energy conversion . Electromagnetic devices . Industrial

rotary and linear motors

Section E ± Environment

21 Lighting

Light and vision . Quantities and units . Photometric

concepts . Lighting design technology . Lamps . Lighting

design . Design techniques . Lighting applications

22 Environmental Control

Introduction . Environmental comfort . Energy

requirements . Heating and warm-air systems . Control .

Energy conservation . Interfaces and associated data

23 Electromagnetic Compatibility

Introduction . Common terms . The EMC model . EMC

requirements . Product design . Device selection . Printed

circuit boards . Interfaces . Power supplies and power-line

filters . Signal line filters . Enclosure design . Interface cable

connections . Golden rules for effective design for EMC .

System design . Buildings . Conformity assessment . EMC

testing and measurements . Management plans

24 Health and Safety

The scope of electrical safety considerations . The nature of

electrical injuries . Failure of electrical equipment

25 Hazardous Area Technology

A brief UK history . General certification requirements .

Gas group and temperature class . Explosion protection

concepts . ATEX certification . Global view . Useful

websites

Section F ± Power Generation

26 Prime Movers

Steam generating plant . Steam turbine plant . Gas turbine

plant . Hydroelectric plant . Diesel-engine plant

27 Alternative Energy Sources

Introduction . Solar . Marine energy . Hydro . Wind .

Geothermal energy. Biofuels . Direct conversion . Fuel cells .

Heat pumps

28 Alternating Current Generators

Introduction . Airgap flux and open-circuit e.m.f. .

Alternating current windings . Coils and insulation .

Temperature rise . Output equation . Armature reaction .

Reactances and time constants . Steady-state operation .

Synchronising . Operating charts . On-load excitation .

Sudden three phase short circuit . Excitation systems .

Turbogenerators . Generator±transformer connection .

Hydrogenerators . Salient-pole generators other than

hydrogenerators . Synchronous compensators . Induction

generators . Standards

29 Batteries

Introduction . Cells and batteries . Primary cells .

Secondary cells and batteries . Battery applications .

Anodising . Electrodeposition . Hydrogen and oxygen

electrolysis

Section G ± Transmission and Distribution

30 Overhead Lines

General . Conductors and earth wires . Conductor fittings .

Electrical characteristics . Insulators . Supports . Lightning .

Loadings

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31 Cables

Introduction . Cable components . General wiring cables

and flexible cords . Supply distribution cables .

Transmission cables . Current-carrying capacity . Jointing

and accessories . Cable fault location

32 HVDC

Introduction . Applications of HVDC . Principles of HVDC

converters . Transmission arrangements . Converter station

design . Insulation co-ordination of HVDC converter

stations . HVDC thyristor valves . Design of harmonic

filters for HVDC converters . Reactive power

considerations . Control of HVDC . A.c. system damping

controls . Interaction between a.c. and d.c. systems .

Multiterminal HVDC systems . Future trends

33 Power Transformers

Introduction . Magnetic circuit . Windings and insulation .

Connections . Three-winding transformers . Quadrature

booster transformers . On-load tap changing . Cooling .

Fittings . Parallel operation . Auto-transformers . Special

types . Testing . Maintenance . Surge protection .

Purchasing specifications

34 Switchgear

Circuit-switching devices . Materials . Primary-circuit￾protection devices . LV switchgear . HV secondary

distribution switchgear . HV primary distribution

switchgear . HV transmission switchgear . Generator

switchgear . Switching conditions . Switchgear testing .

Diagnostic monitoring . Electromagnetic compatibility .

Future developments

35 Protection

Overcurrent and earth leakage protection . Application of

protective systems . Testing and commissioning .

Overvoltage protection

36 Electromagnetic Transients

Introduction . Basic concepts of transient analysis .

Protection of system and equipment against transient

overvoltage . Power system simulators . Waveforms

associated with the electromagnetic transient phenomena

37 Optical Fibres in Power Systems

Introduction . Optical fibre fundamentals . Optical fibre

cables . British and International Standards . Optical fibre

telemetry on overhead power lines . Power equipment

monitoring with optical fibre sensors

38 Installation

Layout . Regulations and specifications . High-voltage

supplies . Fault currents . Substations . Wiring systems .

Lighting and small power . Floor trunking . Stand-by and

emergency supplies . Special buildings . Low-voltage

switchgear and protection . Transformers . Power-factor

correction . Earthing . Inspection and testing

Section H ± Power Systems

39 Power System Planning

The changing electricity supply industry (ESI) . Nature of

an electrical power system . Types of generating plant and

characteristics . Security and reliability of a power system .

Revenue collection . Environmental sustainable planning

40 Power System Operation and Control

Introduction . Objectives and requirements . System

description . Data acquisition and telemetering .

Decentralised control: excitation systems and control

characteristics of synchronous machines . Decentralised

control: electronic turbine controllers . Decentralised

control: substation automation . Decentralised control:

pulse controllers for voltage control with tap-changing

transformers. Centralised control . System operation .

System control in liberalised electricity markets .

Distribution automation and demand side management .

Reliability considerations for system control

41 Reactive Power Plant and FACTS

Controllers

Introduction . Basic concepts . Variations of voltage

with load . The management of vars . The development

of FACTS controllers . Shunt compensation . Series

compensation . Controllers with shunt and series

components . Special aspects of var compensation . Future

prospects

42 Electricity Economics and Trading

Introduction . Summary of electricity pricing principles .

Electricity markets . Market models . Reactive market

43 Power Quality

Introduction . Definition of power quality terms . Sources

of problems . Effects of power quality problems .

Measuring power quality . Amelioration of power quality

problems . Power quality codes and standards

Section I ± Sectors of Electricity Use

44 Road Transport

Electrical equipment of road transport vehicles . Light rail

transit . Battery vehicles . Road traffic control and

information systems

45 Railways

Railway electrification . Diesel-electric traction . Systems,

EMC and standards . Railway signalling and control

46 Ships

Introduction . Regulations . Conditions of service .

D.c. installations . A.c. installations . Earthing . Machines

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and transformers . Switchgear . Cables . Emergency power .

Steering gear . Refrigerated cargo spaces . Lighting .

Heating . Watertight doors . Ventilating fans . Radio

interference and electromagnetic compatibility . Deck

auxiliaries . Remote and automatic control systems .

Tankers . Steam plant . Generators . Diesel engines .

Electric propulsion

47 Aircraft

Introduction . Engine technology . Wing technology .

Integrated active controls . Flight-control systems . Systems

technology . Hydraulic systems . Air-frame mounted

accessory drives . Electrohydraulic flight controls .

Electromechanical flight controls . Aircraft electric power .

Summary of power systems . Environmental control

system . Digital power/digital load management

48 Mining Applications

General . Power supplies . Winders . Underground

transport . Coal-face layout . Power loaders . Heading

machines . Flameproof and intrinsically safe equipment .

Gate-end boxes . Flameproof motors . Cables, couplers,

plugs and sockets . Drilling machines . Underground

lighting . Monitoring and control

49 Standards and Certification

Introduction . Organisations preparing electrical standards .

The structure and application of standards . Testing,

certification and approval to standard recommendations .

Sources of standards information

Index

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Preface

The Electrical Engineer's Reference Book was first published

in 1945: its original aims, to reflect the state of the art in

electrical science and technology, have been kept in view

throughout the succeeding decades during which sub￾sequent editions have appeared at regular intervals.

Publication of a new edition gives the opportunity to

respond to many of the changes occurring in the practice

of electrical engineering, reflecting not only the current

commercial and environmental concerns of society, but

also industrial practice and experience plus academic

insights into fundamentals. For this 16th edition, thirty￾nine chapters are either new, have been extensively

rewritten, or augmented and updated with new material.

As in earlier editions this wide range of material is brought

within the scope of a single volume. To maintain the overall

length within the possible bounds some of the older

material has been deleted to make way for new text.

The organisation of the book has been recast in the

following format with the aim of facilitating quick access

to information.

General Principles (Chapters 1±3) covers basic scientific

background material relevant to electrical engineering. It

includes chapters on units, mathematics and physical

quantities, electrotechnology and network analysis.

Materials & Processes (Chapters 4±10) describes the

fundamentals and range of materials encountered in

electrical engineering in terms of their electromechanical,

thermoelectric and electromagnetic properties. Included

are chapters on the fundamental properties of materials,

conductors and superconductors, semiconductors, insu￾lation, magnetic materials, electroheat and materials pro￾cessing and welding and soldering.

Control (Chapters 11±16) is a largely new section with six

chapters on electrical measurement and instruments,

industrial instrumentation for process control, classical

control systems theory, fundamentals of digital control,

microprocessors and programmable controllers.

Power Electronics and Drives (Chapters 17±20) reflect the

significance of upto 50% of all electrical power passing

through semiconductor conversion. The subjects included

of greatest importance to industry, particularly those

related to the area of electrical variable speed drives,

comprise power semiconductor devices, electronic

power conversion, electrical machine drives, motors and

actuators.

Environment (Chapters 21±25) is a new section of particular

relevance to current concerns in this area including lighting,

environmental control, electromagnetic compatibility,

health and safety, and hazardous area technology.

Power Generation (Chapters 26±29) sees some ration￾alisation of contributions to previous editions in the largely

mechanical engineering area of prime movers, but with an

expanded treatment of the increasingly important topic of

alternative energy sources, along with further chapters on

alternating current generators and batteries.

Transmission and Distribution (Chapters 30±38) is con￾cerned with the methods and equipment involved in the

delivery of electric power from the generator to the

consumer. It deals with overhead lines, cables, HVDC

transmission, power transformers, switchgear, protection,

and optical fibres in power systems and aspects of

installation with an additional chapter on the nature of

electromagnetic transients.

Power Systems (Chapters 39±43) gathers together those

topics concerned with present day power system planning

and power system operation and control, together with

aspects of related reactive power plant and FACTS

controllers. Chapters are included on electricity economics

and trading in the liberalised electricity supply industry now

existing in many countries, plus an analysis of the power

supply quality necessary for modern industrialised nations.

Sectors ofElectricity Use (Chapters 44±49) is a concluding

section comprising chapters on the special requirements of

agriculture and horticulture, roads, railways, ships, aircraft,

and mining with a final chapter providing a preliminary

guide to Standards and Certification.

Although every effort has been made to cover the scope of

electrical engineering, the nature of the subject and the

manner in which it is evolving makes it inevitable that

improvements and additions are possible and desirable. In

order to ensure that the reference information provided

remains accurate and relevant, communications from

professional engineers are invited and all are given careful

consideration in the revision and preparation of new

editions of the book.

The expert contributions made by all the authors involved

and their patience through the editorial process is gratefully

acknowledged.

M. A. Laughton

D. F. Warne

2002

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Electrical Engineer's Reference BookÐonline edition

As this book goes to press an online electronic version is also in preparation. The online edition will feature

. the complete text of the book

. access to the latest revisions (a rolling chapter-by-chapter revision will take place between print editions)

. additional material not included in the print version

To find out more, please visit the Electrical Engineer's Reference Book web page:

http://www.bh.com/newness?isbn=0750646373

or send an e-mail to [email protected]

//integras/b&h/Eer/Final_06-09-02/part

Section A

General Principles

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//integras/b&h/eer/Final_06-09-02/eerc001 1

Units,

Mathematics and

Physical

Quantities

1.1 1/3

1.1.1 1/3

1.1.2 1/3

1.1.3 Notes 1/3

1.1.4 1/3

1.1.5 1/4

1.1.6 1/4

1.1.7 1/4

1.2 Mathematics 1/4

1.2.1 1/6

1.2.2 1/7

1.2.3 1/9

1.2.4 Series 1/9

1.2.5 1/9

1.2.6 1/10

1.2.7 1/10

1.2.8 1/10

1.2.9 1/13

1.2.10 1/13

1.3 1/17

1.3.1 Energy 1/17

1.3.2 1/19

1.4 1/26

1.5 Electricity 1/26

1.5.1 1/26

1.5.2 1/26

1.5.3 1/28

M

G Say PhD, MSc, CEng, ACGI, DIC, FIEE, FRSE

Formerly of Heriot-Watt University M A Laughton BASc, PhD, DSc(Eng), FREng,

CEng, FIEE

Formerly of Queen Mary

& Westfield College,

University of London

(Section 1.2.10)

Contents

International unit system

Base units

Supplementary units

Derived units

Auxiliary units

Conversion factors

CGS electrostatic and electromagnetic units

Trigonometric relations

Exponential and hyperbolic relations

Bessel functions

Fourier series

Derivatives and integrals

Laplace transforms

Binary numeration

Power ratio

Matrices and vectors

Physical quantities

Structure of matter

Physical properties

Charges at rest

Charges in motion

Charges in acceleration

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This reference section provides (a) a statement of the

International System (SI) of Units, with conversion factors;

(b) basic mathematical functions, series and tables; and

(c) some physical properties of materials.

1.1 International unit system

The International System of Units (SI) is a metric system

giving a fully coherent set of units for science, technology

and engineering, involving no conversion factors. The starting

point is the selection and definition of a minimum set of inde￾pendent `base' units. From these, `derived' units are obtained

by forming products or quotients in various combinations,

again without numerical factors. For convenience, certain

combinations are given shortened names. A single SI unit of

energy (jouleˆ(kilogram metre-squared per second-squared)

is, for example, applied to energy of any kind, whether it be

kinetic, potential, electrical, thermal, chemical . . . , thus unify￾ing usage throughout science and technology.

The SI system has seven base units, and two supplement￾ary units of angle. Combinations of these are derived for all

other units. Each physical quantity has a quantity symbol

(e.g. m for mass, P for power) that represents it in physical

equations, and a unit symbol (e.g. kg for kilogram, W for

watt) to indicate its SI unit of measure.

1.1.1 Base units

Definitions of the seven base units have been laid down in

the following terms. The quantity symbol is given in italic,

the unit symbol (with its standard abbreviation) in roman

type. As measurements become more precise, changes are

occasionally made in the definitions.

Length: l, metre (m) The metre was defined in 1983 as

the length of the path travelled by light in a vacuum during

a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.

Mass: m, kilogram (kg) The mass of the international

prototype (a block of platinum preserved at the

International Bureau of Weights and Measures, SeÁvres).

Time: t,second (s) The duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of

the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two

hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom.

Electric current: i, ampere (A) The current which, main￾tained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of

negligible circular cross-section and 1 m apart in vacuum, pro￾duces a force equal to 2 (10�7 newton per metre of length.

Thermodynamic temperature: T, kelvin (K) The fraction

1/273.16 of the thermodynamic (absolute) temperature of

the triple point of water.

Luminousintensity:I, candela (cd) The luminous intensity

in the perpendicular direction of a surface of 1/600 000 m2 of a

black body at the temperature of freezing platinum under a

pressure of 101 325 newton per square metre.

Amount of substance: Q, mole (mol) The amount of sub￾stance of a system which contains as many elementary entities

as there are atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon-12. The elementary

entity must be specified and may be an atom, a molecule, an

ion, an electron . . . , or a specified group of such entities.

1.1.2 Supplementary units

Plane angle: , &. . . , radian (rad) The plane angle

between two radii of a circle which cut off on the circumfer￾ence of the circle an arc of length equal to the radius.

Solid angle:

, steradian (sr) The solid angle which, having

its vertex at the centre of a sphere, cuts off an area of the surface

of the sphere equal to a square having sides equal to the radius.

International unit system 1/3

1.1.3 Notes

Temperature At zero K, bodies possess no thermal

energy. Specified points (273.16 and 373.16 K) define

the Celsius (centigrade) scale (0 and 100C). In terms of

intervals, 1C ˆ(1 K. In terms of levels, a scale Celsius

temperature &corresponds to (&‡ 273.16) K.

Force The SI unit is the newton (N). A force of 1 N

endows a mass of 1 kg with an acceleration of 1 m/s2

.

Weight The weight of a mass depends on gravitational

effect. The standard weight of a mass of 1 kg at the surface

of the earth is 9.807 N.

1.1.4 Derived units

All physical quantities have units derived from the base and

supplementary SI units, and some of them have been given

names for convenience in use. A tabulation of those of inter￾est in electrical technology is appended to the list in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 SI base, supplementary and derived units

Quantity Unit Derivation Unit

name symbol

Length metre

Mass kilogram

Time second

Electric current ampere

Thermodynamic

temperature kelvin

Luminous

intensity candela

Amount of mole

substance

Plane angle radian

Solid angle steradian

Force newton

Pressure, stress pascal

Energy joule

Power watt

Electric charge,

flux coulomb

Magnetic flux weber

Electric potential volt

Magnetic flux

density tesla

Resistance ohm

Inductance henry

Capacitance farad

Conductance siemens

Frequency hertz

Luminous flux lumen

Illuminance lux

Radiation

activity becquerel

Absorbed dose gray

Mass density kilogram per

cubic metre

Dynamic

viscosity pascal-second

Concentration mole per cubic

m

kg

s

A

K

cd

mol

rad

sr

kg m/s2 N

N/m2 Pa

N m, W s J

J/s W

A s C

V s Wb

J/C V

s

Wb/m2 T

V/A

Wb/A, V s/A H

C/V, A s/V F

A/V S �1 Hz

cd sr lm

lm/m2 lx

s

�1 Bq

J/kg Gy

kg/m3

Pa s

mol/ 3 metre m

Linear velocity metre per second m/s

Linear metre per second- m/s2

acceleration squared

Angular velocity radian per second rad/s

cont'd