Ecotourism

Ecotourism , fourth edition

Ecotourism continues to be embraced as the antithesis of mass tourism because of its

promise of achieving sustainability through conservation mindedness, community devel￾opment, education and learning, and the promotion of nature- based activities that are

sensitive to both ecological and social systems. The extent to which this promise has been

realised is open to debate.

Focusing on an array of economic, social and ecological inconsistencies that continue

to plague ecotourism in theory and practice, the volume examines ecotourism in reference

to other related forms of tourism, impacts, conservation, sustainability, education and

interpretation, policy and governance, and the ethical imperative of ecotourism as these

apply to the world’s greenest form of tourism. Ecotourism is a growing fi eld attracting

increasing attention from students and academics. David Fennell provides an authoritative

and comprehensive review of the most important issues that continue to both plague eco -

tourism and make it one of the most dynamic sectors in the tourism industry. It covers a

comprehensive range of themes and geographical regions.

Building on the success of prior editions, Ecotourism has been revised throughout to

incorporate recent research and benefi ts from the introduction of real- life case studies and

summaries of recent literature. An essential reference for those interested in ecotourism,

the book is accessible to students but retains the depth required for use by researchers and

practitioners in the fi eld. New chapters on the theory and application of animal ethics;

community development in sustainable tourism; and education and learning in the fi eld

have added further value to an already very comprehensive book. It will be of interest to

students across a range of disciplines including geography, economics, business, ethics,

biology and environmental studies.

David A. Fennell is a Professor in Tourism Management at Brock University in Ontario,

Canada. His previous books include Tourism and Animal Ethics, Tourism Ethics and

Ecotourism Programme Planning . David is also the founding Editor in Chief of the

Journal of Ecotourism .

‘Now in its fourth edition, David Fennell’s Ecotourism has become a guidebook in its own right.

No other work offers a more thoughtful or thorough history of the ideas and ideals that have

informed the study and practice of ecotourism. Fennell is a pioneer in the fi eld, and he writes

with the authority of someone who’s followed and documented the many successes and failures

of ecotourism that have kept it a topic of debate for so many years. This is an important text

for those seeking to understand the potential value and ethics of ecotourism for communities,

economies, and ecosystems.’

Dr Amanda Stronza, Texas A&M University, USA

‘Fennell captures the very essence of ecotourism by emphasising the ethical imperative, natural

history, and the deeper integration with sustainable development. His comprehensive approach

to the conceptual and philosophical foundations, as well as the thoughtful consideration of the

issues associated with ecotourism help the reader to integrate theory and practice. Now in its

fourth edition, Ecotourism remains a must for students, researchers and practitioners in the

fi eld.’

Professor Jarkko Saarinen, University of Oulu, Finland, and

University of Johannesburg, South Africa

‘David Fennell’s latest contribution to ecotourism is a masterpiece. He has unravelled the many

complexities of the topic and presented them in three easy to understand parts. This book is

essential reading for everyone associated with ecotourism; I am confi dent it will become a

classic in the fi eld.’

Professor Ross K. Dowling OAM, Edith Cowan University, Australia

Ecotourism

Fourth edition

David A. Fennell

First published 2015

by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

and by Routledge

711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2015 David A. Fennell

The right of David A. Fennell to be identifi ed as author of this work has been

asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,

Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or

utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now

known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in

any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing

from the publishers.

Trademark notice : Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered

trademarks, and are used only for identifi cation and explanation without intent

to infringe.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Fennell, David A., 1963-

Ecotourism / David A. Fennell. – Fourth edition.

pages cm

ISBN 978-0-415-82964-9 (hardback) – ISBN 978-0-415-82965-6 (paperback)

– ISBN 978-0-203-38211-0 (e-book) 1. Ecotourism. I. Title.

G156.5.E26F465 2014

338.4’791–dc23

2014012615

ISBN: 978-0-415-82964-9 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-415-82965-6 (pbk)

ISBN: 978-0-203-38211-0 (ebk)

Typeset in Times New Roman

by Refi neCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk

To my family

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Contents

List of plates ix

List of fi gures xi

List of tables xiii

List of case studies xv

Preface xvii

Acknowledgements xix

Part I The essence of ecotourism 1

Chapter 1 The nature of ecotourism 3

Chapter 2 The ecotourist 21

Part II Core criteria used to defi ne ecotourism 37

Chapter 3 Nature- based 39

Chapter 4 Sustainability 1: local participation and benefi ts 63

Chapter 5 Sustainability 2: conservation 84

Chapter 6 Learning 110

Chapter 7 The moral imperative 133

Part III Topics and issues important to ecotourism 163

Chapter 8 Socio- cultural and ecological impacts of ecotourism 165

Chapter 9 Economic impacts and marketing of ecotourism 191

Chapter 10 Development, governance and policy 219

Chapter 11 Programme planning 249

Chapter 12 Conclusion 270

Appendix 277

Bibliography 283

Index 325

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Plates

1.1 Tourist development at Cancún, Mexico 7

1.2 AT can take many forms 9

1.3 Mayan ruins 19

2.1 Ecotourists in search of whales 28

2.2 Ecotourists learning about the natural history of dry

topical rainforests 28

2.3 Bird watching is an activity that attracts both experienced and

inexperienced ecotourists 30

2.4 Guides play an important role in the learning process 34

3.1 The kayak continues to be the mainstay of many adventure- related

operations in North America 44

3.2 Going to the beach is a form of NBT 45

3.3 To some tourists culture is the primary attraction 53

3.4 Ecotourism programmes may contain aspects of adventure in

unique settings. But is this ecotourism? 57

5.1 On Canada’s west coast, giant trees saved from loggers have

generated much interest among ecotourists 93

5.2 Petroglyph (painting of a moose), Clearwater River

Provincial Park, Saskatchewan 94

5.3 The beauty and power of Clearwater River, Saskatchewan 94

5.4 Tracking device for sharks 98

5.5 Insertion of a tracking device in a porbeagle shark 99

6.1, 6.2 Experienced multilingual interpreters 117

6.3 There is no generic style for the construction of ecolodges 127

7.1 Jaguar, chained up for 24 hours a day as an ecotourism attraction 139

7.2 Turtle egg- laying season 139

8.1 Wilderness users are wise to use existing campsites 176

8.2 The impact of park users on the environment takes many forms 177

8.3, 8.4 Leaving plants and animals alone altogether 178

9.1 In Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada, Captain Marks is

one of the most visible whale watch operators – and the

most successful 210

10.1 Whale watching at St. Andrews, New Brunswick, Canada 229

10.2 Minke whale off the coast of St. Andrews 229

11.1, 11.2 Placing value on the needs of participants 253

11.3, 11.4 The needs of ecotourists involve getting close enough for

observation and photography 258

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Figures

1.1 Hard and soft dimensions of ecotourism 12

1.2 Ecotourism continuum: operational congruency with ecotourism 15

2.1 Model of motivation 22

2.2 Soft- and hard- path dimensions of the ecotourist 33

3.1 Human priorities and actions in recreational interactions with fi sh 48

3.2 Wildlife- based tourism 49

3.3 Levels of risk in tour packages 55

3.4 Tourism activity spectrum 56

3.5 ACE tourism 57

4.1 Principles for sustainable tourism 68

4.2 Degrees of sustainable tourism 71

4.3 Tourism relationships 72

5.1 The evolving role of parks 90

6.1 Ecotourism accommodation continuum 129

7.1 Reciprocal altruism 134

7.2 A framework of moral philosophy 136

7.3 Ethics and African game reserves 138

7.4 Characteristics of resource protection and development 140

7.5 A model of ethical triangulation 144

7.6 Moral development in ecotourism organisational cultures 145

7.7 The country code 148

7.8 Example of an Antarctica code of ethics guideline 150

8.1 Impact on recreation sites 176

8.2 The tourist area life cycle 182

8.3 A sustainable ecotourism cycle of evolution? 185

8.4 The EBT planning framework 187

9.1 Imports leading to leakages 192

9.2 Categories of economic values attributed to environmental assets 197

9.3 The process of market targeting to achieve institutional objectives 211

11.1 Satisfaction in recreation and tourism 251

11.2 Planning for tourism and recreation 252

11.3 Accreditation standards for sustainable accommodation 267

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Tables

1.1 Potential benefi ts derived from an AT strategy 8

1.2 Comparison of selected ecotourism and nature tourism defi nitions 16

2.1 Relative importance of selected attractions and benefi ts to Canadian

travellers and ecotourists 26

3.1 Hybrid adventure, culture and ecotourism experiences offered by

commercial ecotourism businesses in New Zealand 58

4.1 Core indicators of sustainable tourism 66

4.2 Ecosystem- specifi c indicators 67

4.3 Code for the indigenous- sensitive ecotourist 80

5.1 Categories for conservation management 96

5.2 Commons issues in protected areas 103

5.3 Private reserve types 107

6.1 EcoGuide Program benefi ts 113

6.2 Guidelines for Aboriginal cultural interpretation of wildlife 123

6.3 Traditional lodge versus ecolodge 125

7.1 Ethical orientations: a comparison 143

7.2 Special ethical considerations of tourism 143

7.3 Key concepts of environmental justice 147

7.4 Ecotourism accreditation fees 157

8.1 A framework for the study of tourism and environmental stress 171

9.1 Guiding principles for fee policy in NBT 195

9.2 Strengths and weaknesses of marketing intermediaries 215

9.3 Demarketing measures identifi ed in tourism and protected area

management research 217

10.1 Institutional arrangements for community involvement in tourism 226

10.2 Innovation’s place in tourism policy and regulation 242

10.3 Policy implementation framework 244

10.4 Australian national ecotourism strategy objectives 245

11.1 Important aspects of programme planning 252

11.2 Why conduct needs assessments? 257

11.3 General resource inventory 259

11.4 SWOT analysis of Kazdagi National Park 260

11.5 Programme design matrix 262

11.6 Outline of a risk management plan 265

11.7 Major steps in Borg and Gall’s research and development cycle adapted to

programme planning 266

11.8 The construct domains of service experience 268

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