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Contemporary Tourism
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CONTEMPORARY
TOURISM: AN
INTERNATIONAL
APPROACH
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Contemporary Tourism:
An International
Approach
Chris Cooper and C Michael Hall
AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD
PARIS • SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier
Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier
Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK
30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA
First edition 2008
Copyright © 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted
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as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any
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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
ISBN: 978-0-7506-6350-2
Typeset by Charon Tec Ltd (A Macmillan Company), Chennai, India
www.charontec.com
Printed and bound in Great Britain
08 09 10 11 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
For information on all Butterworth-Heinemann publications visit our
web site at books.elsevier.com
Contents
List of figures xi
List of tables xiii
Acknowledgements xv
Section 1 Contemporary Tourism Systems
Chapter 1 Contemporary tourism systems 3
Introduction 4
The service dimension of tourism 4
The tourism system 6
Who are the tourists? 13
Contemporary perspectives 18
Approach of this book 19
Chapter overview 21
Self-review questions 22
Recommended reading 22
Recommended web sites 23
Chapter 2 Contemporary tourism product markets 25
Introduction 26
Tourism products 26
Experiences as tourism products 29
Tourism markets 34
Tourism product markets 36
Creating product markets: market stories 38
Interactions and exchanges in product markets 44
Chapter overview 44
Self-review questions 46
Recommended reading 47
Recommended web sites 47
v
Section 2 The Contemporary Tourist
Chapter 3 Contemporary tourists, tourist behaviour and flows 51
Introduction 52
International travel movement 53
The stability of tourism: tourism inertia 58
Distance as a determinant of the flows and patterns of
contemporary tourism 59
Describing tourism 62
Micro-scale approaches 67
Meso-level accounts of tourism 70
Chapter overview 72
Self-review questions 73
Recommended reading 73
Recommended web sites 74
Chapter 4 Contemporary tourism marketing 77
Introduction 78
Definitions and contemporary tourism marketing approaches 78
Evolution towards a services marketing approach 80
The contemporary marketing environment for tourism 82
The practice of contemporary tourism marketing 88
Chapter overview 104
Self-review questions 105
Recommended reading 105
Recommended web sites 106
Section 3 The Contemporary Tourism Destination
Chapter 5 Delivering the contemporary tourism product:
the destination 111
Introduction: the destination concept 112
From places to destinations 112
The resource base of tourism 117
Chapter overview: Developing destinations 129
Self-review questions 131
vi CONTENTS
Recommended reading 131
Recommended web sites 132
Chapter 6 Governing the contemporary tourism product 134
Introduction 135
From government to governance 135
Multi-level governance 140
The roles of government in tourism 148
Types of regulation 152
From politics to partnership? 154
Chapter overview 156
Self-review questions 157
Recommended reading 157
Recommended web sites 158
Chapter 7 Consequences of visitation at the contemporary
destination 160
Introduction 161
Positive and negative consequences of tourism 161
Assessing the consequences of tourism 178
Chapter overview 184
Self-review questions 185
Recommended reading 185
Recommended web sites 186
Chapter 8 Planning and managing the contemporary
destination 188
Introduction 189
The development of contemporary destination planning 190
Changing approaches to destination planning 193
Five traditions of tourism planning 196
Responsibility for contemporary destination planning 203
Planning sustainable destinations and sustainable regions 209
Chapter overview 211
Self-review questions 212
Recommended reading 212
Recommended web sites 213
CONTENTS vii
Chapter 9 Marketing and branding the contemporary
destination 216
Introduction 217
Contemporary destination marketing and branding 217
Destination image 223
Contemporary destination marketing strategy 226
Destination branding 229
Technology 232
Destination marketing organizations 236
Contemporary destination marketing issues 241
Chapter overview 245
Self-review questions 245
Recommended reading 246
Recommended web sites 247
Section 4 The Contemporary Tourism Industry
Chapter 10 The scope of the contemporary tourism sector 251
Introduction 252
The size and scope of the contemporary tourism industry 252
A tourism system 254
Definitions of the contemporary tourism industry 255
A partially industrialized system 257
Measuring the scale and scope of the contemporary tourism
industry 258
The standard industrial classification approach 258
Tourism satellite accounts 260
Tourism employment 267
Chapter overview 268
Self-review questions 269
Recommended reading 270
Recommended web sites 270
Chapter 11 The tourism industry: contemporary issues 272
Introduction 273
Tourism businesses 273
The globalizing contemporary tourism industry 274
viii CONTENTS
Contemporary drivers of globalization 275
Tourism and the service sector 276
Managing knowledge in the contemporary tourism industry 279
The knowledge-based economy 280
Types of knowledge 280
Rethinking knowledge management for tourism businesses:
the question of scale 281
The benefits of knowledge management for contemporary
tourism businesses 282
Contemporary tourism industry networks 283
Tourism networks 285
Networked tourism businesses 293
Small businesses and entrepreneurship in the contemporary
tourism industry 294
Contemporary tourism HR 297
Demographics and attitudes 298
Tourism jobs and working conditions 298
Managing contemporary tourism HR 300
Contemporary tourism HR management 300
Tourism HR: the impact of globalization 301
Chapter overview 303
Self-review questions 304
Recommended reading 304
Recommended web sites 305
Chapter 12 Supporting the contemporary tourism product:
service management 307
Introduction 308
Context 309
Evolution towards a ‘service’ mindset 310
Customer and service orientation 312
Important concepts in service management 317
Links between tourists, tourism employees and tourism business
performance 325
Strategic human resource management 329
Service culture and climate 333
CONTENTS ix
x CONTENTS
Measuring performance: using a balanced scorecard 334
Chapter overview 339
Self-review questions 340
Recommended reading 340
Recommended web sites 341
Section 5 Tourism Futures
Chapter 13 Tourism in the twenty-first century:
contemporary tourism in an uncertain world 347
Introduction 348
Growth in international tourism versus global environmental
change? 349
Winter tourism 353
Responding to change 356
Predicting change 363
Tourism and oil 364
What future for tourism? 367
Chapter overview 370
Self-review questions 370
Recommended reading 371
Recommended web sites 372
Index 375
List of figures
1.1 Locating the tourism experience and tourism product 5
1.2 The geographical tourism system 7
1.3 The characteristics of tourism in relation to time, distance,
boundaries and description of purpose of travel 17
1.4 Understanding the nature of contemporary tourism 20
2.1 The tourism market 28
2.2 The Tasmanian experience concept 33
2.3 A sociocognitive market system 37
2.4 An extended model of high-risk leisure consumption 41
2.5 The environment of product market interactions 45
3.1 Continuum of idealized attributes of mass and alternative tourism 65
3.2 Food tourism as SIT 67
3.3 The construction of mobility biographies and life courses 72
4.1 The stage-gate process model 98
5.1 Elements of place as locale 114
6.1 Elements of multi-level governance institutions and relations
affecting tourism 141
7.1 Interrelationships between tourism’s impacts 162
7.2 Change matrix of consequences of tourism 164
7.3 Understanding the consequences of tourism 178
9.1 Canadian product clusters: the basis for product clubs 239
11.1 The tourism network structure of the Great Ocean Road region 287
11.2 The tourism network structure of the Bright and Wangaratta
Valley region 288
11.3 The tourism network structure for Townsville 289
xi
xii LIST OF FIGURES
11.4 The tourism network structure for the Gold Coast 291
11.5 The tourism network structure for the Southern Downs 292
12.1 Contributing factors to the transformation of the
service economy 311
12.2 Factors which influence tourist satisfaction 321
12.3 The service-profit chain 326
12.4 Employee–customer linkage model 328
13.1 Trends and influences affecting contemporary tourism 350
List of tables
1.1 Main elements of tourism production at different components
of the tourism geographical system 8
1.2 Key elements of consumer psychology at different components
of the tourism geographical system 10
2.1 The changing nature of market stories with product maturity 39
3.1 Scales of analysis of tourism 52
3.2 International tourism arrivals and forecasts 1950–2020 (millions) 53
3.3 Average annual growth in international tourism arrivals and
forecasts 1950–2020 (%) 54
4.1 Translating the marketing orientation into action 80
4.2 Degrees of product ‘newness’ 99
4.3 A framework for service redesign 100
5.1 Key tourism resource indicators for New Orleans and Louisiana
pre- and post-Hurricane Katrina 128
6.1 Policy matrix: roles of government in tourism and policy types 153
7.1 Perceived impacts of tourism on destinations identified in tourism
literature 166
7.2 FIFA requirements for government guarantees and infrastructure
technical requirements for a World Cup (abridged) 174
7.3 Reasons for being in favour of or against World Cup bid 176
8.1 Timelines for traditions of tourism planning 197
8.2 Low-, middle- and high-road regional competitiveness strategies 210
9.1 Definitions of the process and the outcome of destination
marketing 218
9.2 Destination image and marketing actions 226
xiii
xiv LIST OF TABLES
9.3 Jain’s matrix of strategic action 228
9.4 The eMICA model 234
10.1 Mapping tourism enterprises onto various SIC and country
approaches 261
11.1 Organizational structures and entrepreneurial characteristics 295
12.1 Comparison of the product-centric and customer-centric
approaches 314
12.2 A sample template for a restaurant Balanced Scorecard 338
13.1 Operator actions and needs with respect to climate change
events on the Great Barrier Reef 354
13.2 Key issues associated with oil supply 365
13.3 Foresight scenarios 369