Consumer psychology of tourism, hospitality and leisure

Consumer Psychology of Tourism, Hospitality and Leisure

Consumer Psych - Chap 00 Prelim 4/12/03 4:20 pm Page i

Consumer Psychology of Tourism,

Hospitality and Leisure

Volume 3

Edited by

Geoffrey I. Crouch

School of Business, Faculty of Law and Management,

La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria 3086, Australia

Richard R. Perdue

Leeds School of Business, University of Colorado at Boulder,

Boulder, CO 80309-0419, USA

Harry J.P. Timmermans

Department of Urban Planning, Eindhoven University of Technology,

PO Box 513, 5600 MB, Eindhoven, The Netherlands

Muzaffer Uysal

Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Virginia Polytechnic and State

University, 362 Wallace Hall, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0429, USA

CABI Publishing

Consumer Psych - Chap 00 Prelim 4/12/03 4:20 pm Page iii

CABI Publishing is a division of CAB International

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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library,

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Consumer psychology of tourism, hospitality and leisure / edited by

A. G. Woodside … [et al.].

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references.

ISBN 0-85199-322-2 (alk. paper)

1. Tourism--Psychological aspects. 2. Travelers--Psychology.

3. Hospitality industry. 4. Consumer behavior. I. Woodside, Arch

G.

G155.A1c65 1999

338.47910019--dc21 99-31570

CIP

ISBN 0 85199 749 X

Typeset in 9pt New Baskerville by Columns Design Ltd, Reading

Printed and bound in the UK by Biddles Ltd, King’s Lynn

Consumer Psych - Chap 00 Prelim 4/12/03 4:20 pm Page iv

Contents

Contributors ix

Preface xiii

1 Building Foundations for Understanding the Consumer Psychology of Tourism, 1

Hospitality and Leisure

Geoffrey I. Crouch, Richard R. Perdue, Harry J.P. Timmermans and Muzaffer Uysal

PART 1: ATTITUDES, EMOTIONS AND INFORMATION PROCESSING

2 Profiling the One- and Two-star Hotel Guests for Targeted Segmentation Action: a 11

Descriptive Investigation of Risk Perceptions, Expectations, Disappointments and

Information Processing Tendencies

Sara Dolnicˇar

3 The Influence of Consumers’ Emotions on their Service Product Evaluation 21

Sandra Gountas and John Y. Gountas

4 Validating a Guttman-type Social Distance Scale for Explaining Residents’ 33

Attitudes towards Tourism

Maree Thyne and Andreas H. Zins

PART 2: MOTIVATION AND LEARNING

5 Motivation for Domestic Tourism: a Case Study of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia 51

Naima B. Bogari, Geoff Crowther and Norman Marr

6 Ecotourists’ Environmental Learning Opportunity as a Source of Competitive 65

Advantage: Are Ecotourism Operators Missing the Boat with their Advertising?

Garry G. Price

PART 3: CONSUMPTION SYSTEMS

7 Domestic Leisure Traveller Consumption Systems 75

Elizabeth Cowley, Ray Spurr, Peter Robins and Arch G. Woodside

8 Tourist Activity Planning in Congested Urban Tourism Environments: Towards 91

a Game-theoretic Model and Decision Support System

Qi Han, Benedict G.C. Dellaert, W. Fred van Raaij and Harry J.P. Timmermans

v

Consumer Psych - Chap 00 Prelim 4/12/03 4:20 pm Page v

9 Comparing First-time and Repeat Visitors’ Activity Patterns in a Tourism 103

Environment

Astrid D.A.M. Kemperman, Chang-Hyeon Joh and Harry J.P. Timmermans

PART 4: DECISION AND CHOICE

10 A Study of Tourist Decision Processes: Algarve, Portugal 121

Antónia Correia and Geoffrey I. Crouch

11 The Consumption of Association Convention Sites: Preliminary Results from 135

a Study of Site Choice

Geoffrey I. Crouch and Jordan J. Louviere

12 Context and Dynamics of Social Interaction and Information Search in Decision 149

Making for Discretionary Travel

Tzung-Cheng Huan and Jay Beaman

13 A Duality in Vacation Decision Making 161

Kenneth F. Hyde

14 A Model of Vacation Choice: an Integration of Personality and Vacation Choice 169

with Leisure Constraints Theory

Robyn L. McGuiggan

15 Effects of Holiday Packaging on Tourist Decision Making: Some Preliminary 181

Results

Walaiporn Rewtrakunphaiboon and Harmen Oppewal

PART 5: EXPERIENCE AND SATISFACTION

16 An Examination of the Antecedents and Consequences of Customer Satisfaction 189

Yuksel Ekinci and Ercan Sirakaya

17 First-time and Repeat Visitors to Orlando, Florida: a Comparative Analysis of 203

Destination Satisfaction

Paul Fallon and Peter Schofield

18 Aristotelian Ethical Values Within a Tourism/Hospitality Industry Context 215

Glenn F. Ross

19 The Role of Expressive and Instrumental Factors in Measuring Visitor 227

Satisfaction

Muzaffer Uysal and John Williams

PART 6: MARKET SEGMENTATION

20 Profiling Airline Web Users: a Segmentation Approach 237

Joseph S. Chen and Seyou Jang

21 Towards More Thorough Data-driven Segmentation in Tourism: a Tracking 245

Framework for Exploring Segment Development

Sara Dolnicˇar

22 Sustainable Tourism and Stakeholder Groups: a Case Study of Colorado Ski 253

Resort Communities

Richard R. Perdue

vi Contents

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PART 7: ATTRACTION AND LOYALTY

23 Cultural Determinants of Tourist Intention to Return 265

Jeffery M. Caneen

24 Towards the Conceptualization of Tourism Destination Loyalty 275

Outi Niininen and Michael Riley

PART 8: IMAGE AND INTERPRETATION

25 Measuring Comparative Performance of Vacation Destinations: Using Tourists’ 285

Self-reported Judgements as an Alternative Approach

Metin Kozak

26 Cross-cultural Behaviour Research in Tourism: a Case Study on Destination Image 303

Metin Kozak, Enrique Bigné, Ana González and Luisa Andreu

27 Journeys of the Imagination? The Cultural Tour Route Revealed 319

Tove Oliver

Index 333

Contents vii

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Contributors

Luisa Andreu, Faculty of Business and Economy Studies, Department of Management and

Marketing, University of Valencia, Avda. dels Tarongers s/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain. E-mail:

[email protected]

Jay Beaman, Auctor Consulting Associates, Ltd, 465 Andra Ct, Cheyenne, WY 82009, USA.

E-mail: [email protected]

Enrique Bigné, Faculty of Business and Economy Studies, Department of Management and

Marketing, University of Valencia, Avda dels Tarongers s/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain. E-mail:

[email protected]

Naima B. Bogari, King Abdul Aziz University, Faculty of Economics and Administration, Women’s

Campus, PO Box 42804 Jeddah 21551, Saudi Arabia. E-mail: [email protected]

Jeffery M. Caneen, Brigham Young University, Laie, HI 96762, USA. E-mail:

[email protected]

Joseph S. Chen, Department of Hospitality Management, International University of Applied

Sciences, Mülheimer Strasse 38, D-53604 Bad Honnef, Germany. E-mail: j.chen@fh-bad￾honnef.de

Antónia Correia, Faculty of Economics, University of Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8000-117

Faro, Portugal. E-mail: [email protected]

Elizabeth Cowley, School of Marketing, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South

Wales 2052, Australia. E-mail: [email protected]

Geoffrey I. Crouch, School of Business, Faculty of Law and Management, La Trobe University,

Melbourne, Victoria 3086, Australia. E-mail: [email protected]

Geoff Crowther, Department of Marketing, University of Huddersfield, Queensgate,

Huddersfield, W. Yorkshire HD1 3DH, UK. E-mail: [email protected]

Benedict G.C. Dellaert, Department of Marketing, Faculty of Economics and Business

Administration, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands. E-mail:

[email protected]

Sara Dolniˇcar, School of Management, Marketing & Employment Relations, University of

Wollongong, Northfields Avenue, Wollongong, New South Wales 2522, Australia. E-mail:

[email protected]

Yuksel Ekinci, School of Management, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey GU2 7XH, UK.

E-mail: [email protected]

Paul Fallon, School of Leisure, Hospitality and Food Management, University of Salford,

Frederick Road, Salford M6 6PU, UK. E-mail: [email protected]

Ana González, Faculty of Business and Economy Studies, Department of Management and

Marketing, University of León, Campus de Vegazana s/n, 24071 León, Spain. E-mail:

[email protected]

ix

Consumer Psych - Chap 00 Prelim 4/12/03 4:20 pm Page ix

Sandra Gountas, Department of Marketing, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.

E-mail: [email protected]

John Y. Gountas, Bowater School, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia. E-mail:

[email protected]

Qi Han, Department of Urban Planning, Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning,

Eindhoven University of Technology, PO Box 513, 5600 MB, Eindhoven, The

Netherlands. E-mail: [email protected]

Tzung-Cheng Huan, Graduate Institute of Management, National Chia-yi University, 151 Lin￾Sen East Road, Chia-yi, Taiwan, R.O.C. 600. E-mail: [email protected]

Kenneth F. Hyde, Manukau Institute of Technology, Private Bag 94-006, Auckland, New

Zealand. E-mail: [email protected]

Seyou Jang, School of Tourism, Sejong University, 98 Gunja-dong, Gwangjin-ku Seoul 143-747,

South Korea. E-mail: [email protected]

Chang-Hyeon Joh, Department of Urban Planning, Eindhoven University of Technology, PO

Box 513, 5600 MB, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.

Astrid D.A.M. Kemperman, Department of Urban Planning, Eindhoven University of

Technology, PO Box 513, 5600 MB, Eindhoven, The Netherlands. E-mail:

[email protected]

Metin Kozak, School of Tourism and Hotel Management, Mugla University, 48000 Mugla,

Turkey. E-mail: [email protected]

Jordan J. Louviere, School of Marketing, University of Technology, Sydney, PO Box 123,

Broadway, New South Wales 2007, Australia. E-mail: [email protected]

Norman Marr, Department of Marketing, University of Huddersfield, Queensgate,

Huddersfield, W. Yorkshire HD1 3DH, UK. E-mail: [email protected]

Robyn L. McGuiggan, Sydney Graduate School of Management, Parramatta, New South Wales

2150, Australia. E-mail: [email protected]

Outi Niininen, School of Management, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey GU2 7XH, UK.

E-mail: [email protected]

Tove Oliver, Institute of Rural Studies, University of Wales, Aberystwyth SY23 3AL, UK. E-mail:

[email protected]

Harmen Oppewal, Department of Marketing, Monash University, PO Box 197, Caulfield East,

Victoria 3145, Australia. E-mail: [email protected]

Richard R. Perdue, Leeds School of Business, University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, CO

80309-0419, USA. E-mail: [email protected]

Garry G. Price, School of Tourism and Hospitality, La Trobe University, Bundoora,

Melbourne, Victoria 3086, Australia. E-mail: [email protected]

Walaiporn Rewtrakunphaiboon, School of Management, University of Surrey, Guildford,

Surrey GU2 7XH, UK. E-mail: [email protected]

Michael Riley, School of Management, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey GU2 7XH, UK.

E-mail: [email protected]

Peter Robins, Bureau of Tourism Research, GPO Box 1545, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia.

E-mail: [email protected]

Glenn F. Ross, School of Business, James Cook University, Cairns, Queensland 4870, Australia.

E-mail: [email protected]

Peter Schofield, School of Leisure, Hospitality and Food Management, University of Salford,

Frederick Road, Salford M6 6PU, UK. E-mail: [email protected]

Ercan Sirakaya, Texas A&M University, 256A Francis Hall, 2261 TAMU, College Station, TX

77843-2261, USA. E-mail: [email protected]

Ray Spurr, School of Marketing, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales

2052, Australia. E-mail: [email protected]

Maree Thyne, Scottish Centre of Tourism, Aberdeen Business School, The Robert Gordon

University, Garthdee II, Garthdee Road, Aberdeen AB10 7QG, UK. E-mail: m￾[email protected]

x Contributors

Consumer Psych - Chap 00 Prelim 4/12/03 4:20 pm Page x

Harry J.P. Timmermans, Department of Urban Planning, Eindhoven University of Technology,

PO Box 513, 5600 MB, Eindhoven, The Netherlands. E-mail: h.j.p.timmermans

@bwk.tue.nl

Muzaffer Uysal, Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Virginia Polytechnic

Institute and State University, 355 Wallace Hall (0429), Blacksburg, VA 24061-0429, USA.

E-mail: [email protected]

W. Fred van Raaij, Department of Economic and Social Psychology, Faculty of Social and

Behavioural Sciences, Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands. E-mail:

[email protected]

John Williams, Department of Hotel, Restaurant, Institution Management & Dietetics, Kansas

State University, 103 Justin Hall, Manhattan, KS 66506-1404, USA. E-mail:

[email protected]

Arch G. Woodside, Carroll School of Management, Boston College, 450 Fulton Hall, 140

Commonwealth Avenue, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467-3808, USA. E-mail: [email protected]

Andreas H. Zins, Institute for Tourism and Leisure Studies, Vienna University of Economics

and Business Administration, Augasse 2–6, A-1090 Vienna, Austria. E-mail: zins@wu￾wien.ac.at

Contributors xi

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Preface

In Melbourne, Australia, during 5–8 January 2003, a very successful Third Symposium on the

Consumer Psychology of Tourism, Hospitality and Leisure (CPTHL) was held and hosted at La

Trobe University. This followed successful symposia held in Hilo, Hawaii (August 1998), and

Vienna, Austria (July 2000). In Melbourne, 26 papers, selected on the basis of a competitive

paper review process by four reviewers, were presented spanning a broad variety of different

CPTHL topics. Based upon the discussions that took place in Melbourne, authors revised their

papers before submitting them for review one further time prior to publication in this volume.

The symposium brought together tourism, hospitality and leisure researchers from around

the world to report research, share ideas, and advance consumer psychology and consumer

behaviour theory in this important economic sector. In this sector, consumption is character￾ized by almost infinite choice, multi-stage and high-involvement decision processes, frag￾mented service encounters, multi-dimensional product attributes, globally diverse consumers,

and complex social, cultural, ecological and political environments. As such, the tailored devel￾opment and application of consumer psychology and consumer behaviour theory to tourism,

hospitality and leisure presents interesting challenges and exciting possibilities.

The success of the Third Symposium was due to the efforts of a number of people. First, I am

very grateful to my colleagues and Symposium Co-chairs: Professor Richard Purdue, Professor of

Tourism Management at the University of Colorado at Boulder; Professor Harry Timmermans,

Professor of Urban Planning at Eindhoven University of Technology in The Netherlands; and

Professor Muzaffer Uysal, Professor of Tourism Management at Virginia Tech. Their input to the

symposium, and their efforts in evaluating papers, chairing sessions and assisting authors with the

completion of their papers, was critical to the success of the symposium. It was a joy and honour

to work with such highly respected international figures in this field. I would also like to acknowl￾edge the work of Richard Mitchell, Lisa Damevski and other staff in the Faculty of Law and

Management at La Trobe University who assisted with some aspects of the Symposium and its

organization. In particular, Megan Morrow provided important support. Rebecca Stubbs at CABI

Publishing was most helpful throughout the whole process of publication. All of the authors con￾tributed significantly to the success of the Symposium through both their scholarly and social

input. I would finally like to thank my wife, Linda, and children, Amanda, Vanessa and Scott, for

their patience and loving support, which has made the task of organizing the Symposium and

editing this book that much more satisfying and rewarding.

xiii

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Montreal 2005

The Fourth Symposium on the Consumer Psychology of Tourism, Hospitality and Leisure is to

be held in July 2005, in Montreal, Canada, organized by Professor Arch G. Woodside, Professor

of Marketing, Carroll School of Management, Boston College and hosted at the École des

HEC/HEC School of Management. Further details on the symposium will be available by con￾tacting Professor Woodside at [email protected].

Geoffrey I. Crouch

Melbourne, March 2003

xiv Preface

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Chapter one

Building Foundations for Understanding the Consumer

Psychology of Tourism, Hospitality and Leisure

Geoffrey I. Crouch,1 Richard R. Perdue,2 Harry J.P. Timmermans3 and

Muzaffer Uysal4

1School of Business, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria 3086, Australia; 2Leeds School of

Business, University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309-0419, USA; 3Department of

Urban Planning, Eindhoven University of Technology, PO Box 513, 5600 MB, Eindhoven,

The Netherlands; 4Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Virginia Polytechnic

Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0429, USA

Introduction

The field of consumer research generally, and

consumer psychology and behaviour more

specifically, has, in this age of consumption,

attracted growing interest from marketing

scholars and practitioners, psychologists, social

scientists, government policy makers, competi￾tion and consumer regulators, consumer advo￾cacy groups, and of course consumers

themselves – the general public. A knowledge

of how consumers think, feel, and behave is

the crux of this growing interest since it

enables the description, analysis, prediction,

and control or influence of consumers, con￾sumer systems, and the consumption environ￾ment. Both positive and normative aims are

behind the interest in consumers and the

research that this interest is stimulating. A pos￾itive orientation seeks to examine and under￾stand what is, whereas a normative approach is

aimed at determining what ought to be.

The industries and activities that comprise

the tourism, hospitality and leisure sectors of

the economy represent one of the largest

and fastest growing segments of consumer

spending. Yet, despite a developing body of

research, our knowledge and understanding

of the consumer psychology of tourism, hos￾pitality and leisure (CPTHL) is not yet com￾mensurate with the economic and social

significance of the phenomenon. Indeed,

CPTHL research is embryonic and is some￾what scattered across many fields of study

and their respective scholarly research jour￾nals. However, as noted by Woodside (2000,

p. 1), there is growing evidence of the emer￾gence of CPTHL research as a separate scien￾tific field in terms of academic journals,

university degree programmes and scholarly

conferences, including the symposium that

has led to this volume and the earlier publi￾cations in this series (Woodside et al., 2000;

Mazanec et al., 2001).

© CAB International 2004. Consumer Psychology of Tourism, Hospitality and Leisure,

Volume 3 (G.I. Crouch, R.R. Perdue, H.J.P. Timmermans and M. Uysal) 1

Consumer Psych - Chap 01 16/12/03 2:11 pm Page 1

We are therefore now at a stage when the

foundations for developing an understanding

of CPTHL are being formed, and the sound￾ness of these foundations will shape the path

of future research, and the discoveries and

successes it produces.

Dimensions of Psychology

To put CPTHL research into context, we first

consider the various elements that form the

psychology discipline. The field of psychology,

at its most basic, is concerned with understand￾ing human behaviour. Since many factors can

influence, shape or drive human behaviour in

a wide variety of contexts, the discipline of psy￾chology is quite broad. One way of organizing

this complexity is to sort the field into three

dimensions as illustrated in Fig. 1.1.

The first dimension concerns the princi￾pal branches of psychology. Examples of

these overlapping and interconnected fields

include the following:

● Cognitive psychology – a classic definition of

cognitive psychology describes it as refer￾ring ‘to all processes by which the sensory

input is transformed, reduced, elaborated,

stored, recovered, and used’ (Neiser,

1967). Hence cognitive psychology deals

with topics such as perception (attention

and recognition), memory (encoding and

storing, retrieving and forgetting, the

organization of knowledge, and informa￾tion processing), language (linguistic

knowledge, reading and writing), and

thinking, (reasoning, problem-solving and

intelligence).

● Environmental psychology – concerns the

relationship between human behaviour

and the physical environment. This

branch of psychology addresses the per￾ception and cognition of natural and built

environments (Bell et al., 1990). It deals

with issues such as arousal, stimulation,

stress, adaptation, approach–avoidance

behaviour, environmental design, way-find￾ing, and work versus leisure environments.

● Social psychology – this branch is an amal￾gam of sociology and psychology. It

addresses the ways in which individuals are

influenced in their behaviour by other

individuals or groups. Hence, social psy￾chology is concerned with social status or

class, peer groups, cultural norms and

2 G.I. Crouch et al.

BRANCH

Cognitive psychology

Social psychology

Environmental psychology

Economic psychology

etc.

CONTEXT

Sport psychology

Child psychology

Forensic psychology

Organizational psychology

Consumer psychology

etc.

LEVEL OF

ANALYSIS

Sense

Think

Feel

Behave

Cognition

Affect

Conation

}

Fig. 1.1. Dimensions of psychology.

Consumer Psych - Chap 01 16/12/03 2:11 pm Page 2

social rules, family and reference groups,

etc. It also draws upon the field of cultural

anthropology.

● Economic psychology – this interdisciplinary

branch of psychology links cognitive and

social psychology with economics.

Warneryd (1988, in Crotts and van Raaij,

1994) defines it as a ‘discipline that stud￾ies the social–psychological mechanisms

that underlie the consumption of prod￾ucts and services and other economic

behaviour. It deals with consumer prefer￾ences, choices, decisions and factors influ￾encing these behaviours as well as the

consequences of decisions and choices in

the satisfaction of needs.’

The level of analysis in Fig. 1.1 constitutes the

second dimension. In psychology, one might

differentiate between how individuals sense,

think, feel and behave. At the level of the

senses, psychology focuses on biology and

physiology in order to understand the physical

workings of the body and the brain. In terms

of thinking, psychology stresses cognition,

learning, involvement, reasoning and intelli￾gence. To understand feelings, psychology

addresses motivations, attitudes, personality,

emotions, moods, beliefs and the role of

affect. Finally, to understand human behav￾iour, psychology examines the influence and

role of lifestyle, intentions, persuasion, deci￾sion making, choice and satisfaction, among

other factors.

A third dimension recognizes different

contexts in which psychology might be stud￾ied. For example, one might study sports psy￾chology (how can athletes, and sportsmen

and women improve their performance

through the application of psychological

principles), child psychology (how can the

behaviour of children be understood and

managed), forensic psychology (how psychol￾ogy can assist in solving legal problems), and

organizational psychology (how can an orga￾nization such as an enterprise get the best

performance from its employees). In this

book we are, of course, interested in another

context: that of consumer psychology specifi￾cally in tourism, hospitality and leisure (THL)

settings. Thus, we are interested in under￾standing how the principles and theories

from cognitive, environmental, social and

economic psychology inform an understand￾ing of the behaviour of THL consumers. As

such, knowledge of consumer psychology is

fundamental to the successful development,

management, and marketing of THL environ￾ments and businesses.

The Consumer Psychology of Tourism,

Hospitality and Leisure

Mullen and Johnson (1990, p. 1) define con￾sumer psychology ‘as the scientific study of

the behaviour of consumers’. Foxall (1990)

and Foxall and Goldsmith (1994) emphasize

the significance of the cognitive consumer as a

basis for this scientific understanding of con￾sumer behaviour in that ‘consumer choice is

portrayed as an ego-involving sequence of

cognitive, affective, and conative changes

which precede and predetermine the pur￾chase/no purchase outcome’ (Foxall 1990,

p. 9). Figure 1.2 illustrates a conceptual

model of this sequence.

A common way of conceptualizing con￾sumer psychology is to consider the three pri￾mary stages of the consumption or purchase

process: pre-purchase, purchase and acquisi￾tion, and post-purchase (Arnould et al.,

2002). In each of these stages, THL behav￾iour is unique. Specifically, when compared

to most retail products, the THL pre-pur￾chase stage tends to occur much further in

advance, frequently involves making purchase

decisions from great distances, and involves

making decisions between intangible, highly

symbolic alternatives. The choice of destina￾tion(s) and the mix of activities to be under￾taken during the vacation involves a complex

and time-consuming set of decisions to

choose and assemble the desired product prior

to departure. Indeed, many tourists derive a

considerable part of the pleasure of their

experience from these activities leading up to

their trip.

The purchase and acquisition stage

includes the trip itself which generally repre￾sents the core benefit for the consumer.

Usually a trip is very high in experiential and

hedonic characteristics, and is complex in

terms of the number of individual, interdepen￾dent activities that create the overall vacation

Building Foundations for Understanding 3

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