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Color Atlas of Physiology
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I
At a Glance
1 Fundamentals and Cell Physiology 2
2 Nerve and Muscle, Physical Work 42
3 Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) 78
4 Blood 88
5 Respiration 106
6 Acid–Base Homeostasis 138
7 Kidneys, Salt, and Water Balance 148
8 Cardiovascular System 188
9 Thermal Balance and Thermoregulation 224
10 Nutrition and Digestion 228
11 Hormones and Reproduction 268
12 Central Nervous System and Senses 312
13 Appendix 378
Further Reading 397
Index 399
III
Color Atlas
of Physiology
6th edition
Stefan Silbernagl, MD
Professor
Institute of Physiology
University of Würzburg
Würzburg, Germany
Agamemnon Despopoulos, MD
Professor
Formerly: Ciba Geigy
Basel
189 color plates by
Ruediger Gay and
Astried Rothenburger
Thieme
Stuttgart · New York
IV
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Despopoulos, Agamemnon.
[Taschenatlas der Physiologie. English]
Color atlas of physiology / Agamemnon Despopoulos,
Stefan Silbernagl; color plates by Ruediger Gay and Astried
Rothenburger ; [translator, Suzyon O’Neal Wandrey].
– 6th ed., completely rev. and expanded.
p. ; cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Translation of: Taschenatlas der Physiologie. 5th German ed.
c2001.
ISBN 978-3-13-545006-3 (alk. paper)
1. Human physiology–Atlases. I. Silbernagl, Stefan. II. Title.
[DNLM: 1. Physiology–Atlases. QT 17 D471c 2009a]
QP34.5.S5313 2009
612–dc22
2008042538
1st German edition 1979
2nd German edition 1983
3rd German edition 1988
4th German edition 1991
5th German edition 2001
6th German edition 2003
7th German edition 2007
1st English edition 1981
2nd English edition 1984
3rd English edition 1986
4th English edition 1991
5th English edition 2003
1st Dutch edition 1981
2nd Dutch edition 2001
3rd Dutch edition 2008
1st Italian edition 1981
2nd Italian edition 2002
1st Japanese edition 1982
2nd Japanese edition 1992
3rd Japanese edition 2005
1st Serbian edition 2006
1st Spanish edition 1982
2nd Spanish edition 1985
3rd Spanish edition 1994
4th Spanish edition 2001
1st Czech edition 1984
2nd Czech edition 1994
3rd Czech edition 2004
1st French edition 1985
2nd French edition 1992
3rd French edition 2001
1st Turkish edition 1986
2nd Turkish edition 1997
1st Greek edition 1989
1st Chinese edition 1991
1st Polish edition 1994
1st Portuguese edition 2003
1st Hungarian edition 1994
2nd Hungarian edition 1996
1st Indonesion edition 2000
Translated by Suzyon O’Neal Wandrey and Rachel Swift
Illustrated by Atelier Gay + Rothenburger, Sternenfels, Germany
1981, 2009 Georg Thieme Verlag KG
Rüdigerstraße 14, 70469 Stuttgart, Germany
http://www.thieme.de
Thieme New York, 333 Seventh Avenue,
New York, NY 10001, USA
http://www.thieme.com
Cover design: Thieme Publishing Group
Typesetting by: Druckhaus Götz GmbH,
Ludwigsburg, Germany
Printed in Germany by: Offizin Anderson Nexö, Zwenkau
ISBN 978-3-13-545006-3 12345
Important Note: Medicine is an ever-changing
science undergoing continual development.
Research and clinical experience are continually expanding our knowledge, in particular our
knowledge of proper treatment and drug therapy. Insofar as this book mentions any dosage
or application, readers may rest assured that
the authors, editors, and publishers have made
every effort to ensure that such references are
in accordance with the state of knowledge at
the time of production of the book.
Nevertheless, this does not involve, imply,
or express any guarantee or responsibility on
the part of the publishers in respect to any dosage instructions and forms of applications
stated in the book. Every user is requested to
examine carefully the manufacturers’ leaflets
accompanying each drug and to check, if necessary in consultation with a physician or specialist, whether the dosage schedules mentioned
therein or the contraindications stated by the
manufacturers differ from the statements
made in the present book. Such examination is
particularly important with drugs that are
either rarely used or have been newly released
on the market. Every dosage schedule or every
form of application used is entirely at the user’s
own risk and responsibility. The authors and
publishers request every user to report to the
publishers any discrepancies or inaccuracies
noticed. If errors in this work are found after
publication, errata will be posted at www.thieme.com on the product description page.
Some of the product names, patents, and
registered designs referred to in this book are
in fact registered trademarks or proprietary
names even though specific reference to this
fact is not always made in the text. Therefore,
the appearance of a name without designation
as proprietary is not to be construed as a representation by the publisher that it is in the
public domain.
This book, including all parts thereof, is legally protected by copyright. Any use, exploitation, or commercialization outside the narrow
limits set by copyright legislation, without the
publisher’s consent, is illegal and liable to prosecution. This applies in particular to photostat
reproduction, copying, mimeographing or
duplication of any kind, translating, preparation of microfilms, and electronic data processing and storage.
V
Preface to the Sixth Edition
The base of knowledge in many sectors of
physiology has again grown considerably in
magnitude and depth since the last edition of
this book was published. Many advances, especially the successful application of the
methods of molecular biology and gene technology brought completely new insight into
cell signalling and communication as well as
into many integrative functions of the body.
This made it necessary to edit and, in some
cases, enlarge some parts of the book, especially the chapters on blood clotting, water
homeostasis, regulation of body weight, iron
metabolism, sleep-wake cycle, memory and
sound reception.
In recent years, more pathophysiological
aspects and clinical examples have been added
to the curricula of medical physiology. To make
allowance for this development also in this
color atlas, the numerous references to clinical
medicine are marked by blue margin bars, and
pathophysiological and clinical key-words are
attached at the bottom of each text page. They
should make it easier to recognize the relevance of the physiological facts for clinical
medicine at a glance, and to find quickly more
information on these topics in textbooks of
pathophysiology (e. g. in our Color Atlas of
Pathophysiology) and clinical medicine.
I am very grateful for the many helpful comments from attentive readers and for the welcome feedback from my peers, this time especially from Prof. R. Renate Lüllmann-Rauch,
Kiel, Prof. Gerhardt Burckhardt, Göttingen, Prof.
Detlev Drenckhahn, Würzburg, and Dr. Michael
Fischer, Mainz as well as from my colleagues
and staff at the Department of Physiology in
Würzburg. It was again a great pleasure to
work with Rüdiger Gay and Astried Rothenburger, to whom I am deeply indebted for revising many illustrations in the book and for
designing a number of new color plates. To
them I extent my sincere thanks. I am also indebted to the publishing staff, Rachel Swift, a
very competent editor, and Elisabeth Kurz, for
invaluable production assistance. I would also
like to thank Katharina Völker for her ever observant and conscientious assistance in preparing the index.
I hope that also the 6th Edition of the Color
Atlas of Physiology will prove to be a valuable
tool for helping students better understand
physiological correlates, and that it will be a
valuable reference for practicing physicians
and scientists, to help them recall previously
learned information and gain new insights in
physiology.
Würzburg, September 2008
Stefan Silbernagl*
* e-mail: [email protected]
VI
Preface to the First Edition
In the modern world, visual pathways have
outdistanced other avenues for informational
input. This book takes advantage of the economy of visual representation to indicate the simultaneity and multiplicity of physiological
phenomena. Although some subjects lend
themselves more readily than others to this
treatment, inclusive rather than selective
coverage of the key elements of physiology has
been attempted.
Clearly, this book of little more than 300
pages, only half of which are textual, cannot be
considered as a primary source for the serious
student of physiology. Nevertheless, it does
contain most of the basic principles and facts
taught in a medical school introductory
course. Each unit of text and illustration can
serve initially as an overview for introduction
to the subject and subsequently as a concise
review of the material. The contents are as current as the publishing art permits and include
both classical information for the beginning
students as well as recent details and trends
for the advanced student.
A book of this nature is inevitably derivative, but many of the representations are new
and, we hope, innovative. A number of people
have contributed directly and indirectly to the
completion of this volume, but none more
than Sarah Jones, who gave much more than
editorial assistance. Acknowledgement of
helpful criticism and advice is due also to Drs.
R. Greger, A. Ratner, J. Weiss, and S. Wood, and
Prof. H. Seller. We are grateful to Joy Wieser for
her help in checking the proofs. Wolf-Rüdiger
and Barbara Gay are especially recognized, not
only for their art work, but for their conceptual
contributions as well. The publishers, Georg
Thieme Verlag and Deutscher Taschenbuch
Verlag, contributed valuable assistance based
on extensive experience; an author could wish
for no better relationship. Finally, special
recognition to Dr. Walter Kumpmann for inspiring the project and for his unquestioning
confidence in the authors.
Basel and Innsbruck, Summer 1979
Agamemnon Despopoulos
Stefan Silbernagl
VII
From the Preface to the Third Edition
The first German edition of this book was already in press when, on November 2nd, 1979,
Agamennon Despopoulos and his wife, Sarah
Jones-Despopoulos put to sea from Bizerta, Tunisia. Their intention was to cross the Atlantic
in their sailing boat. This was the last that was
ever heard of them and we have had to abandon all hope of seeing them again.
Without the creative enthusiasm of Agamennon Despopoulos, it is doubtful whether
this book would have been possible; without
his personal support it has not been easy to
continue with the project. Whilst keeping in
mind our original aims, I have completely revised the book, incorporating the latest advances in the field of physiology as well as the welcome suggestions provided by readers of the
earlier edition, to whom I extend my thanks for
their active interest.
Würzburg, Fall 1985
Stefan Silbernagl
Dr. Agamemnon Despopoulos
Born 1924 in New York; Professor of Physiology at the
University of New Mexico. Albuquerque, USA, until 1971;
thereafter scientific adviser to CIBA-GEIGY, Basel.
IX
Table of Contents
1 Fundamentals and Cell Physiology 2
The Body: an Open System with an Internal Environment · · · 2
Control and Regulation · · · 4
The Cell · · · 8
Transport In, Through and Between Cells · · · 16
Passive Transport by Means of Diffusion · · · 20
Osmosis, Filtration and Convection · · · 24
Active Transport · · · 26
Cell Migration · · · 30
Electrical Membrane Potentials and Ion Channels · · · 32
Role of Ca2+ in Cell Regulation · · · 36
Energy Production and Metabolism · · · 38
2 Nerve and Muscle, Physical Work 42
Neuron Structure and Function · · · 42
Resting Membrane Potential · · · 44
Action Potential · · · 46
Propagation of Action Potentials in Nerve Fiber · · · 48
Artificial Stimulation of Nerve Cells · · · 50
Synaptic Transmission · · · 50
Motor End-plate · · · 56
Motility and Muscle Types · · · 58
Motor Unit of Skeletal Muscle · · · 58
Contractile Apparatus of Striated Muscle · · · 60
Contraction of Striated Muscle · · · 62
Mechanical Features of Skeletal Muscle · · · 66
Smooth Muscle · · · 70
Energy Supply for Muscle Contraction · · · 72
Physical Work · · · 74
Physical Fitness and Training · · · 76
3 Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) 78
Organization of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) · · · 78
Acetylcholines and Cholinergic Transmission · · · 82
Catecholamines, Adrenergic Transmission and Adrenoceptors · · · 84
Adrenal Medulla · · · 86
Non-cholinergic, Non-adrenergic Transmitters · · · 86
4 Blood 88
Composition and Function of Blood · · · 88
Iron Metabolism and Erythropoiesis · · · 90
Flow Properties of Blood · · · 92
Plasma, Ion Distribution · · · 92
X
Immune System · · · 94
Hypersensitivity Reactions (Allergies) · · · 100
Blood Groups · · · 100
Hemostasis · · · 102
Fibrinolysis and Thromboprotection · · · 104
5 Respiration 106
Lung Function, Respiration · · · 106
Mechanics of Breathing · · · 108
Purification of Respiratory Air · · · 110
Artificial Respiration · · · 110
Pneumothorax · · · 110
Lung Volumes and their Measurement · · · 112
Dead Space, Residual Volume, Airway Resistance · · · 114
Pressure–Volume Curve, Respiratory Work · · · 116
Surface Tension, Surfactant · · · 118
Dynamic Lung Function Tests · · · 118
Pulmonary Gas Exchange · · · 120
Pulmonary Blood Flow, Ventilation–Perfusion Ratio · · · 122
CO2 Transport in Blood · · · 124
CO2 Binding in Blood, CO2 in CSF · · · 126
CO2 in Cerebrospinal Fluid · · · 126
Binding and Transport of O2 in Blood · · · 128
Internal (Tissue) Respiration, Hypoxia · · · 130
Respiratory Control and Stimulation · · · 132
Effects of Diving on Respiration · · · 134
Effects of High Altitude on Respiration · · · 136
Oxygen Toxicity · · · 136
6 Acid–Base Homeostasis 138
pH, pH Buffers, Acid–Base Balance · · · 138
Bicarbonate/Carbon Dioxide Buffer · · · 140
Acidosis and Alkalosis · · · 142
Assessment of Acid–Base Status · · · 146
7 Kidneys, Salt, and Water Balance 148
Kidney Structure and Function · · · 148
Renal Circulation · · · 150
Glomerular Filtration and Clearance · · · 152
Transport Processes at the Nephron · · · 154
Reabsorption of Organic Substances · · · 158
Excretion of Organic Substances · · · 160
Reabsorption of Na+ and Cl– ··· 162
Reabsorption of Water, Formation of Concentrated Urine · · · 164
Body Fluid Homeostasis · · · 168
Salt and Water Regulation · · · 170
Diuresis and Diuretics · · · 174
The Kidney and Acid–Base Balance · · · 176
Table of Contents
XI
Reabsorption and Excretion of Phosphate, Ca2+ and Mg2+ ··· 180
Potassium Balance · · · 182
Tubuloglomerular Feedback, Renin–Angiotensin System · · · 186
8 Cardiovascular System 188
Overview · · · 188
Blood Vessels and Blood Flow · · · 190
Cardiac Cycle · · · 192
Cardiac Impulse Generation and Conduction · · · 194
Electrocardiogram (ECG) · · · 198
Excitation in Electrolyte Disturbances · · · 200
Cardiac Arrhythmias · · · 202
Ventricular Pressure–Volume Relationships · · · 204
Cardiac Work and Cardiac Power · · · 204
Regulation of Stroke Volume · · · 206
Venous Return · · · 206
Arterial Blood Pressure · · · 208
Endothelial Exchange Processes · · · 210
Myocardial Oxygen Supply · · · 212
Regulation of the Circulation · · · 214
Circulatory Shock · · · 220
Fetal and Neonatal Circulation · · · 222
9 Thermal Balance and Thermoregulation 224
Thermal Balance · · · 224
Thermoregulation · · · 226
10 Nutrition and Digestion 228
Nutrition · · · 228
Energy Metabolism and Calorimetry · · · 230
Energy Homeostasis and Body Weight · · · 232
Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract: Overview, Immune Defense, Blood Flow · · · 234
Neural and Hormonal Integration · · · 236
Saliva · · · 238
Deglutition · · · 240
Vomiting · · · 240
Stomach Structure and Motility · · · 242
Gastric Juice · · · 244
Small Intestinal Function · · · 246
Pancreas · · · 248
Bile · · · 250
Excretory Liver Function, Bilirubin · · · 252
Lipid Digestion · · · 254
Lipid Distribution and Storage · · · 256
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates and Protein · · · 260
Vitamin Absorption · · · 262
Water and Mineral Absorption · · · 264
Large Intestine, Defecation, Feces · · · 266
Table of Contents
XII
11 Hormones and Reproduction 268
Integrative Systems of the Body · · · 268
Hormones · · · 270
Humoral Signals: Control and Effects · · · 274
Cellular Transmission of Signals from Extracellular Messengers · · · 276
Hypothalamic–Pituitary System · · · 282
Carbohydrate Metabolism and Pancreatic Hormones · · · 284
Thyroid Hormones · · · 288
Calcium and Phosphate Metabolism · · · 292
Biosynthesis of Steroid Hormones · · · 296
Adrenal Cortex and Glucocorticoid Synthesis · · · 298
Oogenesis and the Menstrual Cycle · · · 300
Hormonal Control of the Menstrual Cycle · · · 302
Estrogens, Progesterone · · · 304
Progesterone, Prolactin, Oxytocin · · · 305
Hormonal Control of Pregnancy and Birth · · · 306
Androgens and Testicular Function · · · 308
Sexual Response, Intercourse and Fertilization · · · 310
12 Central Nervous System and Senses 312
Central Nervous System · · · 312
Cerebrospinal Fluid · · · 312
Stimulus Reception and Processing · · · 314
Sensory Functions of the Skin · · · 316
Proprioception, Stretch Reflex · · · 318
Nociception and Pain · · · 320
Polysynaptic Reflexes · · · 322
Synaptic Inhibition · · · 322
Central Conduction of Sensory Input · · · 324
Movement · · · 326
Hypothalamus, Limbic System · · · 332
Cerebral Cortex, Electroencephalogram (EEG) · · · 334
Circadian Rhythms, Sleep–Wake Cycle · · · 336
Consciousness, Sleep · · · 338
Learning, Memory, Language · · · 340
Glia · · · 344
Sense of Taste · · · 344
Sense of Smell · · · 346
Sense of Balance · · · 348
Eye Structure, Tear Fluid, Aqueous Humor · · · 350
Optical Apparatus of the Eye · · · 352
Visual Acuity, Photosensors · · · 354
Adaptation of the Eye to Different Light Intensities · · · 358
Retinal Processing of Visual Stimuli · · · 360
Color Vision · · · 362
Visual Field, Visual Pathway, Central Processing of Visual Stimuli · · · 364
Eye Movements, Stereoscopic Vision, Depth Perception · · · 366
Physical Principles of Sound—Sound Stimulus and Perception · · · 368
Conduction of Sound, Sound Sensors · · · 370
Table of Contents
XIII
Central Processing of Acoustic Information · · · 374
Voice and Speech · · · 376
13 Appendix 378
Dimensions and Units · · · 378
Powers and Logarithms · · · 386
Logarithms, Graphic Representation of Data · · · 387
Reference Values in Physiology · · · 390
Important Equations in Physiology · · · 394
Further Reading 397
Index 399
Table of Contents
III
Color Atlas
of Physiology
6th edition
2 1 Fundamentals and Cell Physiology
“. . . If we break up a living organism by isolating its different parts, it is only for the sake of ease in
analysis and by no means in order to conceive them separately. Indeed, when we wish to ascribe to a
physiological quality its value and true significance, we must always refer it to the whole and draw
our final conclusions only in relation to its effects on the whole.”
Claude Bernard (1865)
The existence of unicellular organisms is the
epitome of life in its simplest form. Even
simple protists must meet two basic but essentially conflicting demands in order to survive.
A unicellular organism must, on the one hand,
isolate itself from the seeming disorder of its
inanimate surroundings, yet, as an “open system” ( p. 40), it is dependent on its environment for the exchange of heat, oxygen,
nutrients, waste materials, and information.
“Isolation” is mainly ensured by the cell
membrane, the hydrophobic properties of
which prevent the potentially fatal mixing of
hydrophilic components in watery solutions
inside and outside the cell. Protein molecules
within the cell membrane ensure the permeability of the membrane barrier. They may
exist in the form of pores (channels) or as more
complex transport proteins known as carriers
( p. 26 ff.). Both types are selective for certain substances, and their activity is usually
regulated. The cell membrane is relatively well
permeable to hydrophobic molecules such as
gases. This is useful for the exchange of O2 and
CO2 and for the uptake of lipophilic signal substances, yet exposes the cell to poisonous gases
such as carbon monoxide (CO) and lipophilic
noxae such as organic solvents. The cell membrane also contains other proteins—namely,
receptors and enzymes. Receptors receive signals from the external environment and convey the information to the interior of the cell
(signal transduction), and enzymes enable the
cell to metabolize extracellular substrates.
Let us imagine the primordial sea as the external environment of the unicellular organism ( A). This milieu remains more or less
constant, although the organism absorbs
nutrients from it and excretes waste into it. In
spite of its simple structure, the unicellular organism is capable of eliciting motor responses
to signals from the environment. This is
achieved by moving its pseudopodia or
flagella, for example, in response to changes in
the food concentration.
The evolution from unicellular organisms to
multicellular organisms, the transition from
specialized cell groups to organs, the emergence of the two sexes, the coexistence of individuals in social groups, and the transition
from water to land have tremendously increased the efficiency, survival, radius of action, and independence of living organisms.
This process required the simultaneous development of a complex infrastructure within the
organism. Nonetheless, the individual cells of
the body still need a milieu like that of the
primordial sea for life and survival. Today, the
extracellular fluid is responsible for providing
constant environmental conditions ( B), but
the volume of the fluid is no longer infinite. In
fact, it is even smaller than the intracellular
volume ( p. 168). Because of their metabolic
activity, the cells would quickly deplete the
oxygen and nutrient stores within the fluids
and flood their surroundings with waste products if organs capable of maintaining a stable
internal environment had not developed. This
is achieved through homeostasis, a process by
which physiologic self-regulatory mechanisms (see below) maintain steady states in
the body through coordinated physiological
activity. Specialized organs ensure the continuous absorption of nutrients, electrolytes
and water and the excretion of waste products
via the urine and feces. The circulating blood
connects the organs to every inch of the body,
and the exchange of materials between the
blood and the intercellular spaces (interstices)
creates a stable environment for the cells. Organs such as the digestive tract and liver absorb nutrients and make them available by
processing, metabolizing and distributing
them throughout the body. The lung is responsible for the exchange of gases (O2 intake,
CO2 elimination), the liver and kidney for the
The Body: an Open System with an Internal Environment
1 Fundamentals and Cell Physiology
Cardiovascular, renal, and respiratory failure
31 Fundamentals and Cell Physiology
Plate 1.1 Internal and External Environment
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