Cases and materials on criminal law

CASES AND MATERIALS ON

CRIMINAL LAW

Fourth Edition

This new edition of Cases and Materials on Criminal Law has been thoroughly updated to

provide a comprehensive selection of key materials drawn from law reports, legislation, Law

Commission consultation papers and reports and Home Office publications.

Clear and highly accessible, this volume is presented in a coherent structure and provides

full coverage of the topics commonly found in the criminal law syllabus. The range of

thoughtfully selected materials and authoritative commentary ensures that this book provides

an essential collection of materials and analysis to stimulate the reader and assist in the study

of this difficult and challenging area of law.

New features include:

• revised text design with clear page layout, headings and boxed and shaded sections to aid

navigation and readability

• chapter introductions to highlight the salient features under discussion

• short chapter table of contents to enable easier navigation

• “Comments and Questions” sections to encourage students to reflect on their reading

• expanded further reading to encourage students to engage further with the subject

• a Companion Website to provide regular updates to the book

This book is an invaluable reference for students on undergraduate or CPE/PG Diploma in

Law criminal law courses, particularly those studying independently or on distance learning

programmes.

Professor Mike Molan, BA, LLM, FHEA, Barrister, is Acting Executive Dean of the

Faculty of Arts and Human Sciences at London South Bank University.

CASES AND MATERIALS ON

CRIMINAL LAW

Fourth Edition

Mike Molan

First edition published 1997 by Cavendish Publishing Limited

Second edition published 2001 by Cavendish Publishing Limited

Third edition published 2005 by Cavendish Publishing Limited

Fourth edition published 2008 by Routledge-Cavendish

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada

by Routledge-Cavendish

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Routledge-Cavendish is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

fourth edition © Molan, Mike T 2008

first edition © Taylor, Alan and Hungerford-Welch, Peter 1997

second edition © Molan, Mike T 2001

third edition © Molan, Mike T 2005

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or

reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,

mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter

invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any

information storage or retrieval system, without permission in

writing from the publishers.

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ISBN10: 0–415–42461–5 (pbk)

ISBN13: 978–0–415–42461–5 (pbk)

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2008.

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PREFACE

As with previous editions, this sourcebook seeks to provide a handy set of reference materials

for students studying criminal law on undergraduate or CPE programmes. It does not seek to

provide the more lengthy discourse one might expect from a traditional textbook, but does

provide extended extracts on key topics enabling the reader to gain a better understanding of

the rationale for the development of the law and the policy issues underpinning the leading

cases. Coverage is therefore provided of the mainstream criminal offences through statutory

and case law materials along with a comprehensive selection of key materials drawn from Law

Commission consultation papers and reports, and Home Office publications.

Since the publication of the 3rd edition there have been a number of significant develop￾ments in the field of substantive criminal law and these are reflected in the structure and

content of this new edition. The long awaited reform of the law relating to deception offences

has now come into effect in the shape of the Fraud Act 2006 and this has had the effect of

replacing all the previous deception offences with new offences under the 2006 Act. These

changes are fully reflected in the text.

Recent decisions of note that are extracted and analysed include R v Kennedy (manslaughter

based on supply of heroin); Attorney General for Jersey v Holley (provocation); R v Mark and

R v Willoughby (elements of killing by gross negligence); R v Barnes (consent as a defence

to sporting injuries); Attorney General’s Reference (No 3 of 2004) (accessorial liability) and R v

Hatton (intoxicated mistake in self-defence cases). Consideration is also given to the likely

changes to the law relating to corporate manslaughter, at the time of writing contained in the

Corporate Manslaughter and Corporate Homicide Bill currently before Parliament.

Two major law reform publications are extensively extracted and contextualised in this

4th edition: the Law Commission’s report on Murder, Manslaughter and Infanticide (Law

Com No 304) – and the Law Commission’s Report on Inchoate Liability for Assisting and

Encouraging Crime (Law Com 300).

I would like to extend my thanks to staff at Routledge for their support and encouragement

in producing this new edition, and as always love to my ‘pit lane’ crew, Alison, Grace, Joy, Miles

and Parker who is still a mad hound. I have endeavoured to state the law as of 1st February

2007 although some later developments have been incorporated where possible.

Professor Mike Molan

London South Bank University

May 2007

OUTLINE CONTENTS

Preface v

Table of Cases xiii

Table of Statutes xxxi

1 Introduction to criminal law: framework and procedures 1

2 Actus reus: the external elements of an offence 54

3 Mens rea: the mental element 72

4 Homicide 145

5 Non-fatal offences against the person 252

6 Sexual offences 323

7 Accessorial liability 358

8 Inchoate offences 426

9 Theft 485

10 The Fraud Act 2006 558

11 Robbery, blackmail, burglary and going equipped 583

12 Criminal damage 610

13 Defences where mens rea is denied 631

14 Defences of compulsion 692

Index 785

DETAILED CONTENTS

Preface v

Table of Cases xiii

Table of Statutes xxxi

1 Introduction to criminal law: framework and procedures 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 What is criminal law? 2

1.3 Sources of criminal law 5

1.4 Interpreting criminal statutes 7

1.5 Classification of offences 7

1.6 The decision to prosecute 9

1.7 Establishing criminal liability – the burden and standard of proof 16

1.8 Criminal appeals 25

1.9 Codification of the criminal law 34

1.10 The impact of the Human Rights Act 1998 on substantive

criminal law 39

2 Actus reus: the external elements of an offence 54

2.1 Terminology 54

2.2 A state of affairs amounting to an actus reus 55

2.3 Codification and law reform proposals 56

2.4 Actus reus must be voluntary 56

2.5 Criminal liability for omissions 57

3 Mens rea: the mental element 72

3.1 Introduction 72

3.2 Mens rea: intention – the background to the current law 72

3.3 Mens rea – recklessness 83

3.4 The significance of mistake 91

3.5 Children and proof of mens rea 96

3.6 Coincidence of actus reus and mens rea 98

3.7 Transferred malice 102

3.8 Strict liability 110

3.9 Corporate bodies and proof of mens rea 132

4 Homicide 145

4.1 Introduction 145

4.2 The actus reus of homicide – the victim must be a ‘life in being’ 149

4.3 Causation 153

4.4 The gap in time between the defendant’s act and the victim’s death 174

4.5 The mens rea for murder 175

4.6 Voluntary manslaughter 186

4.7 Involuntary manslaughter: unlawful act manslaughter 224

4.8 Involuntary manslaughter: killing by gross negligence 234

4.9 Causing or allowing the death of a child or vulnerable adult 243

4.10 Codification and law reform proposals 244

4.11 Corporate manslaughter 247

4.12 Reform of corporate manslaughter 249

5 Non-fatal offences against the person 252

5.1 Introduction 252

5.2 Section 18 Offences Against the Person Act 1861 – wounding or

grievous bodily harm with intent 253

5.3 Section 20 Offences Against the Person Act 1861 – malicious

wounding or grievous bodily harm 257

5.4 Section 47 Offences Against the Person Act 1861 – assault

occasioning actual bodily harm 264

5.5 Poisoning 275

5.6 Common assault and battery 279

5.7 ‘Stalking’ 283

5.8 Racially motivated assaults and harassment 284

5.9 Codification and law reform proposals 287

5.10 Consent to physical harm as a defence 293

6 Sexual offences 323

6.1 Introduction 323

6.2 Rape – the need for reform 325

6.3 The reformed offence of rape 329

6.4 ‘Quasi-rape’ – assault by penetration 348

6.5 Sexual assault 349

6.6 Causing a person to engage in sexual activity without consent 351

6.7 Offences against children under the age of 13 352

6.8 Protection of children between 13 and 16 353

7 Accessorial liability 358

7.1 Introduction 358

DETAILED CONTENTS

x

7.2 Modes of participation: counselling 360

7.3 Modes of participation: procuring 361

7.4 Aiding and abetting 364

7.5 Presence at the scene of the crime and failing to prevent the

commission of offences 366

7.6 How can an accomplice withdraw from participation in the

commission of an offence? 372

7.7 The mens rea of accomplices 380

7.8 Establishing the mens rea of accomplices 383

7.9 Where the principal commits acts outside the contemplation

of the accomplice 389

7.10 The relationship between the liability of the principal and the

accomplice 416

8 Inchoate offences 426

8.1 Introduction 426

8.2 Incitement 426

8.3 Statutory conspiracy 439

8.4 Attempt 464

8.5 Doubly inchoate offences – inciting incitement 481

9 Theft 485

9.1 Introduction 485

9.2 Property: the statutory definition 486

9.3 Appropriation 501

9.4 Property belonging to another 522

9.5 Dishonesty 532

9.6 Intention to permanently deprive 538

9.7 Making off without payment 545

9.8 Taking a motor vehicle or other conveyance without authority 549

10 The Fraud Act 2006 558

10.1 Introduction 558

10.2 Why was it necessary to replace deception offences with fraud

offences? 559

10.3 Section 2 of the Fraud Act 2006 – fraud by false representation 563

10.4 Section 3 of the Fraud Act 2006 – fraud by failing to disclose

information 569

10.5 Section 4 of the Fraud Act 2006 – fraud by abuse of position 571

10.6 Section 11 of the Fraud Act 2006 – dishonestly obtaining services 573

10.7 Other offences under the Fraud Act 2006 578

10.8 Should dishonesty have been retained as an element of the Fraud

Act 2006 offences? 579

DETAILED CONTENTS

xi

11 Robbery, blackmail, burglary and going equipped 583

11.1 Introduction: robbery 583

11.2 Blackmail 587

11.3 Burglary 591

11.4 Trespass with intent to commit a sexual offence 601

11.5 Aggravated burglary 602

11.6 Going equipped for stealing, etc 606

12 Criminal damage 610

12.1 Introduction 610

12.2 Property belonging to another 611

12.3 Damage or destroy 612

12.4 Without lawful excuse 614

12.5 Aggravated criminal damage 620

12.6 Other offences under the Criminal Damage Act 1971 628

12.7 Racially motivated criminal damage 628

13 Defences where mens rea is denied 631

13.1 Voluntary intoxication 631

13.2 Involuntary intoxication 645

13.3 Codification and law reform proposals 650

13.4 Sane automatism 655

13.5 Insane automatism 666

14 Defences of compulsion 692

14.1 Introduction 692

14.2 Duress per minas 693

14.3 The availability of the defence of duress per minas: murder and

attempted murder 704

14.4 The availability of the defence of duress per minas: where a

defendant voluntarily exposes himself to the risk of threats 710

14.5 Duress by threats – codification and law reform proposals 714

14.6 Duress of circumstances 722

14.7 A common law defence of necessity? 730

14.8 Self-defence 741

14.9 The statutory defence of reasonable force – Criminal Law Act 1967 754

14.10 Crown prosecution guidance on self-defence 755

14.11 The relevance of the defendant’s perception of the need to act in

self-defence and the force required 757

14.12 Self-defence and necessity 766

14.13 Self-defence – codification and law reform proposals 768

Index 785

DETAILED CONTENTS

xii

TABLE OF CASES

A [2001] UKHL 25 . . 48 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Re A (Children) (Conjoined Twins: Surgical Separation) [2000] 4 All ER 961 . . 61, 151, . . . .

693, 732, 767

A v UK (1999) 27 EHRR 611 . . 41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Abbott v R [1977] AC 755 . . 699, 704, 705, 707, 708 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Abdul-Hussain and Others [1999] Crim LR 570 . . 695, 740, 741 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Abdullahi [2006] All ER (D) 334 . . 355 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Absolom . . 498 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Acott [1997] 1 All ER 706 . . 206 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Adams [1995] 1 WLR 52 . . 561 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Adomako [1994] 3 All ER 79; [1995] 1 AC 171; [1994] 3 WLR 288 . . 44, 46, 141, 153, . . .

238, 240

ADT v United Kingdom [2000] Crim LR 1009 . . 47 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ahluwalia [1992] 4 All ER 889 . . 208, 212, 215 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Airedale National Health Service Trust v Bland [1993] 1 All ER 82 . . 67, 740, 767 . . . . . . . . .

Aitken, Bennet and Barson (1992) 95 Cr App R 304 . . 643 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Aitken and Others [1992] 1 WLR 1066 . . 300 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Albert v Lavin [1982] AC 546 . . 316 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Alford (JF) Transport Ltd; Alford; Payne [1997] 2 Cr App R 326 . . 370 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Allan [1965] 1 QB 130 . . 370 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Allen [1985] AC 1029 . . 547 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Allen [1988] Crim LR 698 . . 645, 646 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Allsop 64 Cr App R 29 . . 458 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Alphacell Ltd v Woodward [1972] AC 824 . . 122 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Altham [2006] EWCA Crim 7 . . 728 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ambler [1979] RTR 217 . . 554 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Anderson; Morris [1966] 2 QB 110 . . 396, 397, 398, 399 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Anderson [1986] AC 27 . . 441, 443, 446, 448 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Anderton v Ryan [1985] AC 560 . . 476, 477, 479, 480, 481 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Andrews [2003] Crim LR 477 . . 231, 233 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Andrews v DPP [1937] AC 576 . . 232, 238, 241, 623 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Andronicou v Cyprus [1998] Crim LR 823 . . 40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Appleyard . . 617 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Armstrong [2000] Crim LR 379 . . 430, 434 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ashford and Smith [1988] Crim LR 682 . . 617, 618 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ashingdane v United Kingdom (1985) 7 EHRR 528 . . 21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Associated Octel Ltd [1996] 4 All ER 846, [1996] 1 WLR 1543 . . 143 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Atakpu and Abrahams [1994] QB 69 . . 520 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Attorney General for Jersey v Holley (Jersey) [2005] UKPC 23 . . 213, 220, 714, 721 . . . . . . .

Attorney General for Northern Ireland’s Ref (No 1 of 1975) [1977] AC 105 . . 752, 753 . . . . .

Attorney General for South Australia v Brown [1960] AC 432 . . 649, 659 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Attorney General v Lockwood 9 M & W 378 . . 126 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Attorney General’s Reference (No 1 of 1975) [1975] QB 773 . . 361 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Attorney General’s Reference (No 1 of 1982) [1983] QB 751 . . 456 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Attorney General’s Reference (No 1 of 1983) [1985] QB 182 . . 530 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Attorney General’s Reference (No 1 of 1985) . . 562 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Attorney General’s Reference (No 1 of 1992) [1993] 1 WLR 274 . . 465 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Attorney General’s Reference (No 2 of 1982) [1984] QB 624 . . 532, 533 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Attorney General’s Reference (No 2 of 1992) [1994] QB 91 . . 657 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Attorney General’s Reference (No 2 of 1999) [2000] 3 All ER 182 . . 139, 240, 242 . . . . . . . . .

Attorney General’s Reference (No 2 of 2004) [2005] EWCA Crim 1415 . . 728 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Attorney General’s Reference (No 3 of 1992) [1994] 1 WLR 409 . . 471, 474, 626 . . . . . . . . . .

Attorney General’s Reference (No 3 of 1994) [1997] 3 All ER 936 . . 31, 101, 104, 149, . . . .

151, 176, 233

Attorney General’s Reference (No 3 of 2004) [2005] EWCA Crim 1882 . . 400, 407 . . . . . . . . .

Attorney General’s Reference (No 4 of 1980) [1981] 1 WLR 705 . . 99 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Attorney General’s Reference (No 4 of 2004) [2005] EWCA Crim 889 . . 286 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Attorney General’s Reference (No 6 of 1980) [1981] QB 715 . . 295, 304 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Attorney General’s Reference (No 28 of 1996) [1997] 2 Cr App R (S) 206 . . 340 . . . . . . . . . . . .

Attorney General’s Reference (No 79 of 2006) Whitta [2006] EWCA Crim 2626 . . 340, . . . .

341, 349, 351

Attorney General’s References (Nos 1 and 2 of 1979) [1980] QB 180 . . 599 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ayres [1984] AC 447 . . 456 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Aziz [1993] Crim LR 708 . . 545 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

B (Court of Appeal, Criminal Division) 16 October 2006 . . 332 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

B v DPP [2000] 1 All ER 833 . . 92, 93, 115 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bailey (1978) 66 Cr App R 31 . . 193 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bailey (John) [1983] 1 WLR 760 . . 641, 655, 663 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Baillie [1995] 2 Cr App R 31 . . 209 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bainbridge [1960] 1 QB 129 . . 364, 383, 387 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Baker [1994] Crim LR 444 . . 380 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Baker and Ward [1999] 2 Cr App R 335 . . 712 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Baker and Wilkins [1997] Crim LR 497 . . 619, 629 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Baldessare (1930) 22 Cr App R 70 . . 390 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ball [1989] Crim LR 730 . . 231 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

TABLE OF CASES

xiv