BIODIESEL - FEEDSTOCKS, PRODUCTION AND APPLICATIONS potx

BIODIESEL - FEEDSTOCKS,

PRODUCTION AND

APPLICATIONS

Edited by Zhen Fang

Biodiesel - Feedstocks, Production and Applications

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/45895

Edited by Zhen Fang

Contributors

Camila Da Silva, Fernanda Castilhos, Ignácio Vieitez, Ivan Jachmanián, Lúcio Cardozo Filho, José Vladimir De Oliveira,

Ignacio Vieitez, Lucio Cardozo Filho, Dr. Mushtaq Ahmad, Rosana Schneider, Valeriano Corbellini, Eduardo Lobo,

Thiago Bjerk, Pablo Gressler, Maiara Souza, Krzysztof Biernat, Artur Malinowski, Joanna Czarnocka, Sevil Yucel, Pınar

Terzioğlu, Didem Özçimen, Guohong Tian, Yanfei Li, Hongming Xu, Andrii Marchenko, H.J. Heeres, R.H. Venderbosch,

Joost Van Bennekom, Olinto Pereira, Alexandre Machado, Wan Mohd Ashri Wan Daud, Yahaya Muhammad Sani,

Abdul Aziz Abdul Raman, Rodrigo Munoz, David Fernandes, Douglas Santos, Raquel Sousa, Tatielli Barbosa, Olga

Machado, Keysson Fernandes, Natalia Deus-De-Oliveira, Hayato Tokumoto, Hiroshi Bandow, Kensuke Kurahashi,

Takahiko Wakamatsu, Ignacio Contreras-Andrade, Carlos Alberto Guerrero-Fajardo, Oscar Hernández-Calderón, Mario

Nieves-Soto, Tomás Viveros-García, Marco Antonio Sanchez-Castillo, Maria Catarina Megumi Kasuya, Raghu Betha

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Publishing Process Manager Iva Simcic

Technical Editor InTech DTP team

Cover InTech Design team

First published December, 2012

Printed in Croatia

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Biodiesel - Feedstocks, Production and Applications, Edited by Zhen Fang

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Contents

Preface IX

Section 1 Feedstocks 1

Chapter 1 Potential Production of Biofuel from Microalgae Biomass

Produced in Wastewater 3

Rosana C. S. Schneider, Thiago R. Bjerk, Pablo D. Gressler, Maiara P.

Souza, Valeriano A. Corbellini and Eduardo A. Lobo

Chapter 2 Algal Biorefinery for Biodiesel Production 25

Didem Özçimen, M. Ömer Gülyurt and Benan İnan

Chapter 3 Major Diseases of the Biofuel Plant, Physic Nut

(Jatropha curcas) 59

Alexandre Reis Machado and Olinto Liparini Pereira

Chapter 4 Biodiesel Feedstock and Production Technologies: Successes,

Challenges and Prospects 77

Y.M. Sani, W.M.A.W. Daud and A.R. Abdul Aziz

Chapter 5 Prospects and Potential of Green Fuel from some Non

Traditional Seed Oils Used as Biodiesel 103

Mushtaq Ahmad, Lee Keat Teong, Muhammad Zafar, Shazia

Sultana, Haleema Sadia and Mir Ajab Khan

Section 2 Biodiesel Production 127

Chapter 6 Biodiesel: Production, Characterization, Metallic Corrosion and

Analytical Methods for Contaminants 129

Rodrigo A. A. Munoz, David M. Fernandes, Douglas Q. Santos,

Tatielli G. G. Barbosa and Raquel M. F. Sousa

Chapter 7 Biodiesel Current Technology: Ultrasonic Process a Realistic

Industrial Application 177

Mario Nieves-Soto, Oscar M. Hernández-Calderón, Carlos Alberto

Guerrero-Fajardo, Marco Antonio Sánchez-Castillo, Tomás Viveros￾García and Ignacio Contreras-Andrade

Chapter 8 Lipase Applications in Biodiesel Production 209

Sevil Yücel, Pınar Terzioğlu and Didem Özçimen

Chapter 9 Non-Catalytic Production of Ethyl Esters Using Supercritical

Ethanol in Continuous Mode 251

Camila da Silva, Ignácio Vieitez, Ivan Jachmanián, Fernanda de

Castilhos, Lúcio Cardozo Filho and José Vladimir de Oliveira

Section 3 By-Products Applications 281

Chapter 10 Approaches for the Detection of Toxic Compounds in Castor

and Physic Nut Seeds and Cakes 283

Keysson Vieira Fernandes and Olga Lima Tavares Machado

Chapter 11 Bio-Detoxification of Jatropha Seed Cake and Its Use in

Animal Feed 309

Maria Catarina Megumi Kasuya, José Maria Rodrigues da Luz, Lisa

Presley da Silva Pereira, Juliana Soares da Silva, Hilário Cuquetto

Montavani and Marcelo Teixeira Rodrigues

Chapter 12 Biomethanol from Glycerol 331

Joost G. van Bennekom, Robertus H. Venderbosch and Hero J.

Heeres

Chapter 13 Utilization of Crude Glycerin from Biodiesel Production: A Field

Test of a Crude Glycerin Recycling Process 363

Hayato Tokumoto, Hiroshi Bandow, Kensuke Kurahashi and

Takahiko Wakamatsu

Section 4 Biodiesel Applications in Engines 385

Chapter 14 Application of Biodiesel in Automotive Diesel Engines 387

Yanfei Li, Guohong Tian and Hongming Xu

VI Contents

Chapter 15 Simulation of Biofuels Combustion in Diesel Engines 407

Andrey Marchenko, Alexandr Osetrov, Oleg Linkov and Dmitry

Samoilenko

Chapter 16 An Analysis of Physico-Chemical Properties of the Next

Generation Biofuels and Their Correlation with the

Requirements of Diesel Engine 435

Artur Malinowski, Joanna Czarnocka and Krzysztof Biernat

Chapter 17 Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Particulate Emissions from

Diesel Engines Fuelled with Waste Cooking Oil Derived

Biodiesel and Ultra Low Sulphur Diesel 461

Raghu Betha, Rajasekhar Balasubramanian and Guenter Engling

Contents VII

Preface

Biodiesel is renewable, biodegradable, nontoxic and carbon-neutral. Biodiesel production

has been commercialized in Europe and United States, and its use is expanding dramatically

worldwide. Although there are many books that focus on biodiesel, there is the need for a

comprehensive text that considers development of biodiesel systems from the production of

feedstocks and their processing technologies to the comprehensive applications of both by￾products and biodiesel.

This book includes 17 chapters contributed by experts around world on biodiesel. The

chapters are categorized into 4 parts: Feedstocks, Biodiesel production, By-product

applications, Biodiesel applications in engines.

Part 1 (Chapters 1-5) focuses on feedstocks. Chapters 1 and 2 cover the growth of microalgae

and algae for the production of biodiesel and other biofuels. Chapter 3 introduces the major

diseases of biodiesel plant – Jatropha curcas L. during its plantation. Chapter 4 briefly

reviews biodiesel feedstocks and their processing technologies. Chapter 5 studies some of

non traditional seed oils (e.g., safflower and milk thistle) for the production of biodiesel.

Part 2 (Chapters 6-9) covers biodiesel production methods. Chapter 6 gives an overview of

biodiesel production and its properties, and includes discussion on metallic corrosion from

biodiesel and novel analytical methods for contaminants. Ultrasonic process, lipase

applications and supercritical ethanol approaches in biodiesel production are introduced

and discussed in detail in Chapters 7-9.

Part 3 (Chapters 10-13) shows applications of byproducts. Approaches for the detection of

toxic compounds in Jatropha and castor seed cakes are reviewed in Chapter 10. Bio￾detoxification of Jatropha cake as animal feed is introduced in Chapter 11. Chapters 12 and

13 describe the processes and reactors to convert glycerol to methanol and biogas.

Part 4 (Chapters 14-17) presents applications of biodiesel in engines. Chapters 14-16 review

the practical use, combustion modeling of biodiesel as well as application of blending liquid

biofuels (e.g., butanol, rapeseed oil) in engines. Finally, Chapter 17 gives examples of

particulate emissions from diesel engines fuelled with waste cooking oil derived biodiesel.

This book offers reviews of state-of-the-art research and applications on biodiesel. It should

be of interest for students, researchers, scientists and technologists in biodiesel.

I would like to thank all the contributing authors for their time and efforts in the careful

construction of the chapters and for making this project realizable. It is certain that the

careers of many young scientists and engineers will benefit from careful study of these

works and that this will lead to further advances in science and technology of biodiesel.

I am also grateful to Ms. Iva Simcic (Publishing Process Manager) for her encouragement

and guidelines during my preparation of the book.

Finally, I would like to express my deepest gratitude towards my family for their kind

cooperation and encouragement, which help me in completion of this project.

Prof. Dr. Zhen Fang

Leader of Biomass Group

Chinese Academy of Sciences

Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, China

X Preface

Section 1

Feedstocks

Chapter 1

Potential Production of Biofuel from

Microalgae Biomass Produced in Wastewater

Rosana C. S. Schneider, Thiago R. Bjerk,

Pablo D. Gressler, Maiara P. Souza,

Valeriano A. Corbellini and Eduardo A. Lobo

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52439

1. Introduction

Microalgae are the principal primary producers of oxygen in the world and exhibit enor‐

mous potential for biotechnological industries. Microalgae cultivation is an efficient option

for wastewater bioremediation, and these microorganisms are particularly efficient at recov‐

ering high levels of nitrogen, inorganic phosphorus, and heavy metals from effluent. Fur‐

thermore, microalgae are responsible for the reduction of CO2

from gaseous effluent and

from the atmosphere. In general, the microalgae biomass can be used for the production of

pigments, lipids, foods, and renewable energy [1].

Much of the biotechnological potential of microalgae is derived from the production of im‐

portant compounds from their biomass. The biodiversity of the compounds derived from

these microorganisms permits the development of new research and future technological

advances that will produce as yet unknown benefits [2].

Microalgae grow in open systems (turf scrubber system, raceways, and tanks) and in closed

systems (vertical (bubble column) or horizontal tubular photobioreactors, flat panels, bio‐

coils, and bags). The closed systems favor the efficient control of the growth of these micro‐

organisms because they allow for improved monitoring of the growth parameters [3-4].

Because microalgae contain a large amount of lipids, another important application of mi‐

croalgae is biodiesel production [5]. In addition, after hydrolysis, the residual biomass can

potentially be used for bioethanol production [6]. These options for microalgae uses are

promising for reducing the environmental impact of a number of industries; however, there

© 2012 Schneider et al.; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the

Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits

unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

is a need for optimizing a number of parameters, such as increasing the lipid fraction and

the availability of nutrients [7].

Notably, the microalgae biomass can produce biodiesel [5], bioethanol [6], biogas, biohydro‐

gen [8-9] and bio-oils [10], as shown in Figure 1.

The productivity per unit area of microalgae is high compared to conventional processes for

the production of raw materials for biofuels, and microalgae represent an important reserve

of oil, carbohydrates, proteins, and other cellular substances that can be technologically ex‐

ploited [2,11]. According to Brown et al. [12], 90-95% of the microalgae dry biomass is com‐

posed of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and minerals.

An advantage of culturing algae is that the application of pesticides is not required. Further‐

more, after the extraction of the oil, by-products, such as proteins and the residual biomass,

can be used as fertilizer [13]. Alternatively, the residual biomass can be fermented to pro‐

duce bioethanol and biomethane [14]. Other applications include burning the biomass to

produce energy [15].

Figure 1. Diagram of the principal microalgae biomass transformation processes for biofuel production.

The cultivation of microalgae does not compete with other cropsfor space in agricultural

areas, which immediately excludes them from the "biofuels versus food" controversy. Simi‐

lar to other oil crops, microalgae exhibit a high oil productivity potential, which can reach

up to 100,000 L he-1. This productivity is excellent compared to more productive crops, such

as palm, which yield 5,959 L he-1 and thus contribute to the alleviation of the environmental

and economic problems associated with this industry[16].

Although the productivity of microalgae for biofuel production is lower than traditional

methods, there is increasing interest and initiatives regarding the potential production of

microalgae in conjunction with wastewater treatment, and a number of experts favor this

option for microalgae production as the most plausible for commercial application in the

short term [17].

4 Biodiesel - Feedstocks, Production and Applications

2. Wastewater microalgae production

Photosynthetic microorganisms use pollutants as nutritional resources and grow in accord‐

ance with environmental conditions, such as light, temperature, pH, salinity, and the pres‐

ence of inhibitors [18]. The eutrophication process (increases in nitrogen and inorganic

phosphorus) of water can be used as a biological treatment when the microalgae grow in a

controlled system. Furthermore, these microorganisms facilitate the removal of heavy met‐

als and other organic contaminants from water [19-22].

In general, the use of microalgae can be combined with other treatment processes or as an

additional step in the process to increase efficiency. Therefore, microalgae are an option for

wastewater treatments that use processes such as oxidation [23], coagulation and floccula‐

tion [24], filtration [25], ozonation [26], chlorination [27], and reverse osmosis [28], among

others. Treatments using these methods separately often prove efficient for the removal of

pollutants; however, methods that are more practical, environmentally friendly, and pro‐

duce less waste are desirable. In this case, the combination of traditional methods with mi‐

croalgae bioremediation is promising [29]. The bioremediation process promoted by open

systems, such as high rate algal ponds, combines microalgae production with wastewater

treatment. In addition, the control of microalgae species, parasites, and natural bioflocula‐

tion is important for cost reduction during the production of the microorganism [20, 30].

Many microalgae species grow under inhospitable conditions and present several possibili‐

ties for wastewater treatments. All microalgae production generates biomass, which must be

used in a suitable manner [31-32].

Microalgae are typically cultivated in photobioreactors, such as open systems (turf scrub‐

bers, open ponds, raceway ponds, and tanks) or closed system (tubular photobioreactors,

flat panels, and coil systems). The closed systems allow for increased control of the environ‐

mental variables and are more effective at controlling the growth conditions. Therefore, the

specific cultivation and input of CO2

are more successful. However, open systems can be

more efficient when using wastewater, and low energy costs are achieved for many microal‐

gae species grown in effluents in open systems [33-35]. Because of the necessity for renewa‐

ble energy and the constant search for efficient wastewater treatment systems at a low cost,

the use of microalgae offers a system that combines wastewater bioremediation, CO2

recov‐

ery, and biofuel production.

In turf scrubber systems, high rates of nutrient (phosphorus and nitrogen) removal are ob‐

served. This phenomenon was observed in the biomass retained in the prototype turf scrub‐

ber system used in three rivers in Chesapeake Bay, USA. The time of year was crucial for the

bioremediation of excess nutrients in the river water, and the best results demonstrated the

removal of 65% of the total nitrogen and up to 55% of the total phosphorus, both of which

were fixed in the biomass [32].

Compared to other systems, such as tanks and photobioreactors (Fig. 2), the algae turf scrub‐

ber system is an alternative for the final treatment of wastewater. The turf scrubber system

offers numerous advantageous characteristics, such as temperature control in regions with

Potential Production of Biofuel from Microalgae Biomass Produced in Wastewater

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52439

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