Bebop to the Boolean Boogie: An Unconventional Guide to Electronics (with CD-ROM)

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BEBOP

TO THE

BEBOP

TO THE

An unconwentional guide to electronics

fundamentals, components, and processes

by Clive (call me “Max”) Maxfield

Foreword by Pete Waddell,

Publisher of Printed Circuit Design

N e w n es Amsterdam Boston Heidelberg London New York Oxford

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Newnes is an imprint of Elsevier Science.

Copyright 0 2003, Elsevier Science (USA). All rights reserved.

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Recognizing the importance of preserving what has been written,

Elsevier Science prints its books on acid-free paper whenever possible.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Maxfield, Clive, 1957-

Bebop to the boolean boogie : an unconventional guide to

electronics fundamentals, components, and processes / by Clive

(call me “Max”) Maxfield ; foreword by Pete Waddell.-2nd ed.

p. cm

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 0-7506-7543-8 (alk. paper)

1. Digital electronics-Popular works. I. Title.

TK7868.D5 M323 2002

62 1.381-dc21 2002038930

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Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

Foreword

My first exposure to the unique writing style of Clive (call me “Max”)

Maxfield was a magazine article that he co-wrote with an associate. The

article was technically brilliant (he paid me to say that) and very infor￾mative, but it was the short biography at the end of the piece that I enjoyed

the most. I say enjoyed the most because, as you will soon learn, Max does

not necessarily follow the herd or dance to the same drummer as the masses.

Trade journals have a reputation for being informative and educational but

also as dry as West Texas real estate.

Anyway, Max’s personally submitted biography not only included a

message from his mom, but also made mention of the fact that he (Max)

is taller than his co-author, who just happened to be his boss at the time.

Now to some people this may seem irrelevant, but to our readers (and Max’s

boss), these kind of things-trivial as they may seem to the uninitiated￾are what helps us to maintain our off-grid sense of the world. Max has

become, for better or worse, a part of that alternate life experience.

So now it’s a couple of years later, and Max has asked me to write a

few words by way of introduction. Personally, I think that the title of this

tome alone (hmmm, a movie?) should provide some input as to what YOU

can expect, But, for those who require a bit more: be forewarned, dear

reader, YOU will probably learn far more than you could hope to expect from

Bebop to the Boolean Boogie, just because of the unique approach Max has

to technical material. The author will guide you from the basics through

a minefield of potentially boring theoretical mish-mash, to a Nirvana

of understanding. You will not suffer that fate familiar to every reader:

was trying to say. For a limey, Max shoots amazingly well and from the hip,

but in a way that will keep you interested and amused. If you are not

vigilant, you may not only learn something, but you may even enjoy the

process. The only further advice I can give is to “expect the unexpected.”

ing paragraphs over and over wondering what in the world the author

- PETE WADDELL, Publisher, Printed Circuit Design

Literary genius (so says his mom), and taller than Max by %”

Contents

Not a Lot ....................................... 40

Functions versus Gates .................. 43 Chapter 1 Analog versus Digital .... 1

Chapter 2 Atoms. Molecules. and

Crystals ...................... 7

Chapter 3 Conductors and Insulators;

Voltage. Current.

Resistance. Capacitance.

and Inductance .......... 12

Voltage. Current and Resistance .. 13

Capacitance ................................... 16

Inductance ..................................... 19

Unit Qualifiers .............................. 22

Chapter 4 Semiconductors: Diodes

and Transistors ......... 24

The Electromechanical Relay ....... 24

The First Vacuum Tubes ............... 25

Semiconductors ............................. 26

Semiconductor Diodes .................. 28

Bipolar Junction Transistors ......... 29

Metal-Oxide Semiconductor

Field-Effect Transistors ........... 30

The Transistor as a Switch ........... 32

Gallium Arsenide

Semiconductors ...................... 33

Light-Emitting Diodes .................. 33

Chapter 5 Primitive Logic

Functions ................. 36

BUF and NOT Functions ............. 38

AND. OR. and XOR Functions ... 39

NAND. NOR. and XNOR

Functions ................................ 40

Chapter 6 Using Transistors to

Build Primitive Logic

Functions .................. 44

NOT and BUF Gates .................... 44

NAND and AND Gates ............... 46

NOR and OR Gates ...................... 48

XNOR and XOR Gates ................ 49

Pass-transistor Logic ...................... 51

Chapter 7 Alternative Numbering

Systems .................... 52

Decimal (Base-10) ........................ 52

Duo-Decimal (Base-12) ................ 54

Sexagesimal (Base-60) .................. 55

The Concepts of Zero and

Negative Numbers .................. 56

Vigesimal (Base-20) ...................... 57

Quinary (Base Five) ...................... 58

Binary (Base-2) ............................. 59

Octal (Base-8) and Hexadecimal

(Base-16) ................................. 61

Representing Numbers Using

Powers 63

Tertiary Logic ................................ 66

Chapter 8 Binary Arithmetic ....... 67

Unsigned Binary Numbers ............ 67

Binary Addition ............................ 68

Binary Subtraction ........................ 70

Signed Binary Numbers ................ 75

Binary Multiplication .................... 78

viii Bebop to the Boolean Boogie

Chapter 9 Boolean Algebra ......... 80

Combining a Single Variable

with Logic 0 or Logic 1 ........... 83

The Idempotent Rules .................. 84

The Complementary Rules ........... 84

The Involution Rule ..................... 85

The Commutative Rules ............... 85

The Associative Rules ................... 86

Precedence of Operators ............... 87

The First Distributive Rule ........... 88

The Second Distributive Rule ...... 89

The Simplification Rules .............. 90

DeMorgan Transformations .......... 92

Minterms and Maxterms ............... 94

Sum-of-Products and

Product-of-Sums ..................... 94

Canonical Forms ........................... 96

Chapter 10 Karnaugh Maps ........ 97

Minimization Using Karnaugh

Maps ........................................ 98

Grouping Minterms .................... 100

Incompletely Specified

Functions .............................. 102

Populating Maps Using Os

versus 1s ................................ 103

RS Latches .................................. 112

D-Type Flip-flops ........................ 120

D-Type Latches ........................... 118

JK and T Flip-flops ...................... 123

Shift Registers ............................. 124

Counters ...................................... 126

Setup and Hold Times ................ 128

Brick by Brick .............................. 130

Chapter 12 State Diagrams.

State Tables. and

State Machines ........ 131

State Diagrams ............................ 132

State Tables ................................. 134

State Machines ............................ 134

State Assignment ........................ 136

Don’t Care States. Unused States.

and Latch-Up Conditions .... 138

Chapter 13 Analog-to-Digital and

Digital-to-Analog ..... 140

Analog-to-Digital ........................ 140

Digital-to-Analog ........................ 142

Chapter 11 Using Primitive Logic

Functions to Build More

Complex Functions ... 105

Scalar versus Vector Notation .... 105

Equality Comparators .................. 106

Multiplexers ................................ 107

Decoders ...................................... 109

Tri-State Functions ..................... 1 10

Combinational versus Sequential

Functions .............................. 1 I2 _I

Chapter 14 lntegrated Circuits

(ICs) ...................... 143

An Overview of the Fabrication

Process ................................... 143

A More Detailed Look at the

Fabrication Process ............... 145

The Packaging Process ................ 151

Integrated Circuits versus

Discrete Components ........... 155

Different Types of ICs ................. 155

Technolow Considerations ........ 156

Contents ix

Chapter I5 Memory ICs ............ 162

Architectures ........................ 165

Increasing Width and Depth ...... 170

Alternative Technologies ........... I 72

Underlying RPLM and ROM

Chapter I6 Programmable ICs ... 178

Fusible-link Technologies ........... 1 79

Antifuse Technologies ................ 179

Special PLD Notation ................. I81

Generic PLD Structures .............. I82

Programmable Logic Arrays

(PLAs) .................................. 183

Programmable Array Logic

(PAL) .................................... 184

Programmable Read-only

Memories (PROMS) ............. 185

Additional Programmable

Options ................................. 186

Programming PLDs ..................... 189

Reprogrammable PLDs ................ 191

Complex PLDs (CPLDs) ............. 195

Arrays (FPGAs) .................... 196

Why Use Programmable ICs? ..... 199

Field-Programmable Gate

Chapter I 7 Application-Specific

Integrated Circuits

(ASlCs) .................. 201

Gate Array Devices ..................... 202

Standard Cell Devices ................. 206

Full Custom Devices ................... 208

Input/Output Cells and Pads ...... 209

Who Are All the Players? ........... 21 0

e ASIC Design Flow ............... 21 3

ASIC. ASSP. and COT .............. 21 8

Summary ..................................... 2 19

Chapter 18 Circuit Boards ......... 221

The First Circuit Boards .............. 221

PCBs and PWBs .......................... 222

Subtractive Processes .................. 222

Additive Processes ...................... 225

Single-sided Boards ..................... 226

Lead Through-Hole (LTH) ........ 229

Surface Mount 'Technology

(SMT) ................................... 231

Double-sided Boards .................... 233

Holes versus Vias ......................... 235

Multilayer Boards ........................ 237

Microvia, HID, and Build-up

Technologies ......................... 241

Discrete Wire Technology .......... 243

Backplanes and Motherboards .... 252

Conductive Ink Technology ....... 253

Chip-On-Board (COB) .............. 255

Flexible Printed Circuits (FPCs) 256

Chapter 19 Hybrids ................. 258

Hybrid Substrates ........................ 258

The Thick-Film Process .............. 260

The Thin-Film Process ............... 265

The Assembly Precess ................. 268

The Packaging Process ................ 273

Chapter 20 Multichip Modules

(MCMs) .................. 275

Categorization by Substrate ........ 276

Why Use Multichip Modules? .... 277

Cofired Ceramics ........................ 279

Low-fired Cofired Ceramics ........ 282

Assembly and Packaging ............. 283

Equivalent Integrated Circuits .... 287

The Mind Boggles ....................... 288

x Bebop to the Boolean Boogie

Chapter 2 7 Alternative and Future

Technologies .......... 290

Reconfigurable Hardware and

Interconnect ......................... 290

Adaptive Computing Machines

( ACMs) ................................ 300

Three-Dimensional Molded

Interconnect ......................... 303

Optical Interconnect .................. 305

Optical Memories ........................ 3 15

Protein Switches and Memories . 3 16

Electromagnetic Transistor

Fabrication ............................ 320

Heterojunction Transistors ......... 320

Buckyballs and Nanotubes .......... 323

Diamond Substrates .................... 325

Chip-On-Chip (COC) ............... 328

Conductive Adhesives ................ 3 29

Superconductors .......................... 33 1

Nanotechnology .......................... 333

Again, the Mind Boggles ............ 339

Summary ..................................... 340

Appendix A

Appendix B

Assertion-Level

Logic ..................... 34 1

Positive Logic versus

Negative Logic ........ 345

Physical to Abstract Mapping

Physical to Abstract Mapping

Physical to Intermediate to

(NMOS Logic) ..................... 346

(PMOS Logic) ...................... 348

Abstract Mapping ................. 349

Appendix C Reed-Muller Logic .... 353

Appendix E A Reed-Muller

Extraction Utility ..... 362

How to Become Famous .......... 377

Appendix F Linear Feedback Shift

Registers (LFSRs) ..... 381

Many-to-One Implementations .. 381

More Taps Than You Know

What to Do With ................. 384

One-to-Many Implementations .. 385

Seeding an LFSR ......................... 386

FIFO Applications ...................... 386

Modifying LFSRs to Sequence

2n Values ............................... 389

Accessing the Previous Value ..... 390

Encryption and Decryption

Applications .......................... 391

Cyclic Redundancy Check

Applications .......................... 391

Data Compression Applications . 393

Built-in Self-Test Applications ... 395

Pseudo-Random Number

Applications .......................... 397

Last But Not Least ...................... 400

Appendix G Pass- Transistor

Logic ..................... 401

Appendix H No-Holds-Barred

Seafood Gumbo ....... 405

Abbreviations and Acronyms ...... 409

Glossary ................................. 412

Index ..................................... 446

Bonus Chapter: An Illustrated History

of Electronics and

Computing ... On CD-ROM

Appendix D Gray Codes ............. 358

This book is dedicated to my Auntie Barbara,

whose assiduous scrubbing in my younger years

has left me the proud owner of the cleanest pair

of knees in the known uniwerse!

About this Book

oolean Boogie, whic

This outrageously interesting book has two namesakes, Bebop, a jazz style

known for its fast tempos and agitated rhythms, and Boolean algebra, a branch

of mathematics that is the mainstay of the electronics designer’s tool chest.

Bebop to the Boolean Boogie meets the expectations set by both, because it leaps

from topic to topic with the agility of a mountain goat, and it will become

your key reference guide to understanding the weird and wonderful world of

electronics.

Bebop to the Boolean Boogie provides a wide-ranging but comprehensive

introduction to the electronics arena, roaming through the fundamental

concepts, and rampaging through electronic components and the processes

used to create them. As a bonus, nuggets of trivia are included with which

you can amaze your family and friends; for example, Greenland Eskimos have

a base twenty number system because they count using both fingers and toes.

Section I : Fundamental Concepts starts by considering the differences

between analog and digital views of the world. We then proceed rapidly

through atomic theory and semiconductor switches to primitive logic functions

and their electronic implementations. The concepts of alternative numbering

systems are presented, along with binary arithmetic, Boolean algebra, and

Karnaugh map representations. Finally, the construction of more complex

logical functions is considered along with their applications.

Section 2: Components and Processes is where we consider the components

from which electronic systems are formed and the processes required to

construct them. The construction of integrated circuits is examined in some

detail, followed by introductions to memory devices, programmable devices,

and application-specific devices. The discussion continues with hybrids,

printed circuit boards, and multichip modules. We close with an overview of

some alternative and future technologies along with a history of where every￾thing came from. Also, there’s a bonus chapter (Chapter 22), An Illustrated

History of Electronics and Computing, on the CD-ROM accompanying this

book, that will answer questions you didn’t even think to ask!

This book is of particular interest to electronics students. Additionally, by

clarifying the techno-speech used by engineers, the book is of value to anyone

who is interested in understanding more about electronics but lacks a strong

technical background.

Except where such interpretation is inconsistent with the context, the

singular shall be deemed to include the plural, the masculine shall be deemed

to include the feminine, and the spelling (and the punctuation) shall be

deemed to be correct!