Advances machining processes of metallic materials : Theory, modelling, and applications

ADVANCED MACHINING

PROCESSES OF METALLIC

MATERIALS

ADVANCED MACHINING

PROCESSES OF METALLIC

MATERIALS

Theory, Modelling, and Applications

Second Edition

WIT GRZESIK

Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical

Engineering, Opole University of Technoloy, Poland

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PREFACE

The broad subject of manufacturing engineering and technology, including machining

technology, continues to be recognized as an important and distinct area of study at

mechanical engineering faculties of universities and various technical and research

institutes. After a couple of decades of neglect, this production subject has finally

acquired the distinct academic stature and significance. Engineers and students have

come to the conclusion that without a sound manufacturing base, no nation can hope

for economic survival in an increasingly competitive international marketplace.

This book is an exploration in modern machining technology. In addition to provid￾ing basic information on metal cutting processes and operations, this book also describes

the level of modern machining technology, adopted, to varying degrees, by different sec￾tors of industry in general. Metal machining/cutting is a dynamic technology, involving

the range of disciplines of science, which must be mastered to become a practitioner of

advanced machining technology. Some of these disciplines are the province of machining

technologists, others concern both cutting tool and machine tool manufacturers, and

machine tool builders and users. Nonetheless, it can be helpful for all machining-related

businesses to have a good grasp of the relevant issues in each area. The eight disciplines

are as follows, each of which is covered in relevant clusters of chapters:

• Materials engineering (see chapters: Cutting Tool Materials; Machinability of

Engineering Materials)

• Engineering mechanics and related disciplines (see chapters: Orthogonal and

Oblique Cutting Mechanics; Chip Formation and Control; Cutting Vibrations)

• Thermodynamics (see chapters: Heat in Metal Cutting; Tool Wear and Damage;

and partially chapter: Cutting Fluids)

• Tribology (see chapters: Tribology of Metal Cutting; Tool Wear and Damage; and

partially chapter: Cutting Fluids)

• Modelling techniques (basically chapters: Modelling and Simulation of Machining

Processes and Operations and successively chapters: Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting

Mechanics; Chip Formation and Control; Cutting Vibrations; Heat in Metal Cutting;

Cutting Fluids; Tribology of Metal Cutting; Tool Wear and Damage; Machinability of

Engineering Materials; Machining Economics and Optimization)

• Manufacturing engineering (see chapter: Advanced Machining Processes and

appropriate sections involved)

• Process and motion control (see chapters: Chip Formation and Control; Sensor￾Assisted Machining; Virtual/Digital and Internet-Based Machining; and partially

chapter: Advanced Machining Processes)

• Surface engineering (see chapter: Surface Integrity)

ix

In general, this book is structured into three parts: the first, including Chapter: 2,

Metal Cutting Operations and Terminology; Chapter 3: Trends in Metal Cutting

Theory and Practice; Chapter 4, Cutting Tool Materials; Chapter 5, Modelling and

Simulation of Machining Processes and Operations; Chapter 6, Orthogonal and

Oblique Cutting Mechanics; Chapter 7, Chip Formation and Control; Chapter 8,

Cutting Vibrations; Chapter 9, Heat in Metal Cutting; Chapter 10, Cutting Fluids;

Chapter 11, Tribology of Metal Cutting; Chapter 12, Tool Wear and Damage;

Chapter 13, Machinability of Engineering Materials; Chapter 14, Machining

Economics and Optimization, provides fundamentals of the machining process; the

second, including Chapter 15, Advanced Machining Processes; Chapter 16,

Micro-Machining; Chapter 17, Nanomanufacturing/Nanotechnology; Chapter 18,

Sensor-Assisted Machining; Chapter 19, Virtual/Digital and Internet-Based

Machining, overviews the effects of the theoretical and experimental considerations in

high-level machining technology; and the third Chapter 20, Surface Integrity,

summarizes production outputs related to surface integrity and part quality.

Numerous colour images are provided to facilitate the comprehension of the physical

phenomenon involved and the developments of cutting tools, machine tools and

machine control systems.

Numerous references are provided for more detailed or more extensive informa￾tion on various aspects of metal cutting and its effective applications ranging from

mezo- to nano-scale.

In particular, I have recommended the following books (in alphabetic order) to be

good sources of additional information for metal cutting process and their optimal

applications:

G. Boothroyd, W.A. Knight, Fundamentals of Machining and Machine Tools,

CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2006, is an exceptional source of descriptions of various

cutting-oriented phenomena an recent advances in conventional and nonconventional

machining processes.

T.H.C. Childs, K. Maekawa, T. Obikawa, Y. Yamane, Metal Machining. Theory and

Applications, Arnold, London, 2000, is a good source for reliable experimental data and

modelling techniques (slip-line, FEM, AI-based) developed mainly in UK and Japan.

M.C. Shaw, Metal Cutting Principles, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1989, is a good

source for scientific interpretation of physical principles of conventional machining

processes based on classical mechanics, strength of materials and tribology.

H.K. To¨nshoff, B. Denkena, Basic of Cutting and Abrasive Processes, Springer,

Heidelberg, 2013, is a new reference devoted to available technology of metal cutting

and abrasive processes and their effective implementation in the contemporary indus￾trial practice.

x Preface

E.M. Trent, P.K. Wright, Metal Cutting, Butterworth Heinemann, Boston, 2000,

is a unique source for both traditional material-based approach to the metal cutting

phenomena and essential aspects of 21st-century manufacturing.

According to the author’s intention, this book is addressed to those studying and

teaching the principles of machining processes and operations at universities, as well as

providing an updated theoretical and applied knowledge for those involved in the

machining/manufacturing industry.

I am very grateful to all of those companies (cited by name or reference number

in the figure legends and table footnotes) that granted permission for reproduction of

numerous figures and tables.

I express my gratitude to my coworker Dr. K. Zak for his invaluable help in ˙

preparation illustrations and graphics. Finally and most importantly, I thank my family

for its patience during the many times when my preoccupation with this book

inconvenienced them.

W. Grzesik

July 2016

Preface xi

NOMENCLATURE

LATIN SYMBOLS

A shape factor in Shaw’s equation for heat partition

Aa apparent area of contact between two surface; average value of shape

factor A

Ac cross-sectional area of the uncut chip, i.e., the cross-sectional area of

the layer of material being removed by one cutting edge measured

normal to the resultant cutting direction; contact area

Am maximum value of shape factor A

Ar real area of contact between two surfaces

Ash area of shear plane

Aα tool flank, i.e., the surface over which the surface produced on the

workpiece passes

Aγ tool face, i.e., the surface over which the chip flows ae working engagement, i.e., the instantaneous engagement of the

complete tool with the workpiece, measured in the working plane

Pfe and perpendicular to the direction of feed motion (previously

known as depth of cut in a slab-milling operation) af feed engagement, i.e., the instantaneous engagement of the tool

cutting edge with the workpiece, measured in the working plane Pfe

and in the direction of feed motion (in single-point machining

operations it is equal to the feed f; in multipoint tool operations, it

is equal to the feed per tooth) ap back engagement, i.e., the instantaneous engagement of the com￾plete tool with the workpiece, measured perpendicular to the work￾ing plane Pfe (previously known as depth of cut in a single-point

tool operation and width of cut in a slab-milling operation) apl lower limit of depth of cut (doc) apu upper limit of doc

av amplitude of vibration

B groove width in a groove tool; zone where the flank is regularly

worn

Be equivalent groove width in a groove tool

xiii

BL length of groove backwall wear

BW width of groove backwall wear

b width of cut; width of the cutting edge

bcr the lowest blim obtained for the phasing most favourable for chatter

generation

blim limiting stable axial depth of cut

C constant in upper boundary prediction for the shear angle by Oxley,

constant in Shaw’s equation

CT1, CT2, CT3 constant in general tool-life equation

Cv cutting speed for 1 min of tool life (in m/min)

Cm cost of machining, neglecting non-productive costs

Cmat cost of material for one workpiece

Cmin minimum cost of production, i.e., the minimum value of Cpr

Cmt total machining cost

Cpr production cost, i.e., the average cost of producing each component

on one machine tool

Cv constant in the inverse Taylor equation equal to the cutting speed

for T 5 1 min

Ct constant in the original Taylor tool-life equation

CT constant in the Taylor equation equal to T for vc 5 1 m/min c rigidity constant cd damping force per unit velocity, i.e., the viscous damping constant cp specific heat capacity

D tool diameter (e.g. drill or milling cutter)

dF variation in the cutting force

E Young’s modulus; process activation energy

Ec cutting energy

Ef energy required to perform feed motion; friction energy

Ep energy required to perform plastic deformation

Esh energy required to perform shearing

Efα energy required to overcome friction on the flank face

Efγ energy required to overcome friction on the rake face e base of natural logarithm ec specific cutting energy efγ specific friction energy related to the rake face

esh specific cutting energy related to shearing

F resultant cutting force

F(t) periodic force (in function of time)

Fa active force

Fc cutting component of the resultant tool force, Fr

xiv Nomenclature

FcN an asymptotic value of the cutting force Fc

Fdyn force component due to chip deformation in HSC

Ff feed force

Fm momentum force

Fo Fourier number

Fo objective function

Fp ploughing force

Fr resultant tool force

Fsh force required to shear the work material on the shear plane

FshN force perpendicular to the shear plane

Fsu resultant shear force in HSC

Fα tangential force on the flank face

FαN force perpendicular to flank face

Fγ frictional force on the tool face; frictional force between sliding

chip and tool

FγN force perpendicular to the rake face

f feed rate, i.e., the displacement of the tool relative to the workpiece,

in the direction of feed motion, per revolution of the workpiece or

tool

fm feed per minute

fmax maximum available machine feed

fl lower limit of feed

fn resonance of frequency

fnd natural damped frequency of the system

fopt optimum value of feed

fu upper limit of feed

fz feed per tooth

HT hardness of the tool material

HW hardness of the workpiece material

HRC Rockwell hardness number (C scale)

HSC high spot count (count(s)) (see also High Speed Cutting)

h uncut chip thickness, i.e., the thickness of the layer of material being

removed by one cutting edge at the selected point measured normal

to the resultant cutting force direction

hch chip thickness

hcmin mean uncut chip thickness, i.e., the mean value of hc

hcmax maximum uncut chip thickness, i.e., the maximum value of hc

Im[G] imaginary part of the FRF

K constant for a machining operation; can be regarded as the distance

travelled by the tool in relation to the workpiece during the

machining time tm.

Nomenclature xv

K1
K8 constant in LPM

[K] global stiffness matrix

KB distance from the cutting edge to the back crater contour

KE radial displacement of the tool corner

KF width of the land between the crater and cutting edge

KM distance from the cutting edge to the deepest crater point

KT crater depth; depth of groove backwall wear

K1C fracture toughness

k shear stress in the slip-line field; constant in the Stabler’s formula;

damping ratio; negative slope of the tool-life curve

kc specific cutting pressure

kh chip thickness compression ratio (also Λh)

L tool length; cutting length; lay (surface texture)

l land length in a grooved tool

lc natural tool-chip contact length

lca length of the active cutting edge

lcr restricted tool-chip contact length

le equivalent restricted contact length

lm length of machined surface

lnc natural contact length

lp length of the plastic contact

lsh length of shear plane (also lAB)

lsl sliding-contact length

lst sticking-contact length

lt length of tool

lw length of workpiece or hole to be machined; length of cut path or

cut surface

M total machine and operator rate (cost per unit time), including

machine depreciation

Mt operator’s Wo and machine and operator overheads; mean line (M)

system

MR machinability rating

Mr1 upper material ratio (%)

Mr2 lower material ratio (%)

Mt machine-tool depreciation rate (cost per unit time)

M0

t machine-tool rate including overheads (cost unit time)

MT1
MT5 extreme finishing; finishing; semi-roughing, roughing and heavy

roughing machining operations m slope of linear plastic stress
strain relation; relative shear stress in

Rowe and Spick’s model; mass of the vibration system; width of the

contact zone

xvi Nomenclature

mavg average number of teeth in the cut

mch mass of chip specimen

m1 strain rate sensitivity exponent

N number of teeth on the cutting tool; number of full waves; nose

wear

Nb batch size, i.e., the number of components in the batch to be

machined

Nt number of tools used in machining the batch of components

NL1 notch wear length on main cutting edge

NL2 notch wear length on secondary cutting edge

NW1 notch wear width on main cutting edge

NW2 notch wear width on secondary cutting edge

NT thermal number; number of tool changes necessary during the

machining of a batch of components

n strain-hardening index or exponent; constant in Taylor’s tool-life

equation; spindle rotation speed nopt optimum value of rotational speed ns rotational frequency of a machine-tool spindle

nsc rotational frequency of a machine-tool spindle for minimum

production cost nsef rotational frequency of a machine-tool spindle for minimum

efficiency (maximum profit rate) nsp rotational frequency of a machine-tool spindle foe minimum

production time nt rotational frequency of the cutting tool or abrasive wheel nw rotational frequency of workpiece

P power

{P} vector of all applied loads

Pc local peak count (count/cm) (also cutting power)

Pe electrical power consumed by the machine tool during a machining

operation

Pec Peclet number

Pf assumed working plane

Pfe working plane

Pg tool-face orthogonal plane

Pm power required to perform the machining operation

Pn cutting edge normal plane

Po tool orthogonal plane

Pp tool back plane

Ppe working back plane

Nomenclature xvii

Pr tool reference plane, the rate of production

Pre working reference plane

Ps tool cutting edge plane

Pse working cutting edge plane

Psh shear plane

pA hydrostatic pressure in point A at the free surface

ps specific cutting power, i.e., the work required to remove a unit

volume of material

Q total amount of heat generated in machining

Q1 heat source due to plastic deformation

Q2 frictional heat source

Q3 heat source at the contact between the workpiece and the flank

Q4 heat source from which a small part of heat is transferred to the

sub-surface layer

QW volumetric material removal rate

qc heat flux flowing to the chip

qt heat flux flowing to the tool

qw heat flux flowing to the workpiece

q_ heat flow rate

R thermal number; universal gas constant; surface roughness

{R} load vector

Ra arithmetical mean value of surface roughness (CLA)

Rc Rockwell hardness number (C scale)

Rch heat partition coefficient, i.e., percentage of heat entering the chip

Rk core roughness depth

Rku kurtosis

RKF heat partition coefficient defined by Kato and Fujii

Rmin(τ) minimum radius of up-curling

Rmr(c) material ratio at depth ‘c’ Ro groove radius

Rp maximum height of peaks

Rpk reduced peak height

Rq root mean square (RMS) average

RR heat partition coefficient defined by Reznikov

Rsk skew (skewness)

Rsm average peak spacing

RSH heat partition coefficient defined by Shaw

Rt total height of the profile (obsolete Rmax)

Rv maximum depth of valleys

Rvk reduced valley depth

xviii Nomenclature

Rz maximum height of the profile

Rzt theoretical value of P
V parameter

RΔa centre line average (CLA) slope (deg)

RΔq RMS slope (deg)

Rλa CLA wavelength

Rλq RMS wavelength

rmin radius of the cutting edge at which cutting is taking place rc cutting ratio rchip radius of the chip curvature rn radius of the cutting edge

rs side-curling radius ru up-curling radius; chip curvature rui radius of initial chip curl ruf radius of final chip curl

rε corner radius, i.e., the radius of a rounded tool corner

S tool major cutting edge; income per component

Sa active cutting edge

S’

tool minor cutting edge

SD depth of secondary face wear

SL sampling length

SW width of secondary face wear s lamellar spacing

T temperature; absolute temperature; tool life

T average tool life

Te economic tool life (also TE)

Tm melting temperature

To reference temperature

Tmod velocity modified temperature

Tp tool life for maximum production rate (also TQ)

TR reference tool life

Tr room (ambient) temperature; tool life for a cutting speed of vr

t time

ta acceleration time

tc tool changing time, i.e., the average machine time to change a

worn tool or to index (and, if necessary, replace) a worn insert

tcs interchange time

te magazine indexing (travelling) time

td deceleration time

tl non-productive time, i.e., the average machine time to load and

unload a component and to return the cutting tool to the beginning

of the cut

Nomenclature xix

tl loading and unloading time

tm machining time, i.e., machine time to machine a component

tmax maximum operation time

tpr production time, i.e., the average time to produce one component

on one machine tool

tr transportation (approach) time per workpiece

tx rapid travel location time

{U} matrix of nodal velocities

{u} displacement vector

Vw volume of tool material lost due to wear

VBB average width of flank wear land in the central portion of the active

cutting edge

VBBmax maximum width of flank wear land in the central portion of the

active cutting edge

VBC width of flank wear at tool corner

VBN width of notch wear

Vm. volume of material removed in machining

VN width of the flank wear land at the wear notch

VB0 wear of minor flank face

vac mean cutting speed, i.e., the average value of v along the major

cutting edge vc cutting speed, i.e., the instantaneous velocity of the primary motion

of the selected point on the cutting edge relative to the workpiece

vcc optimum cutting speed for minimum production cost vce cutting speed at minimum cost vch chip velocity vcp optimum cutting speed for minimum production time

vcR reference cutting speed in tool-life equation for grooved tool vcT cutting speed corresponding to defined tool life T vcTmax cutting speed corresponding to maximum tool life Tmax

ve resultant cutting speed, i.e., the instantaneous velocity of the

resultant cutting motion of the selected point on the cutting edge

relative to the workpiece vef cutting speed for maximum efficiency (maximum rate of profit) vf feed velocity

vHSC UTS-depending cutting speed in HSC

vmax maximum cutting speed, i.e., maximum of vc

vmin minimum cutting speed, i.e., minimum of vc

vp cutting speed for minimum production time

xx Nomenclature