Advanced composite materials for automotive applications : Structural integrity and crashworthiness

AUTOMOTIVE SERIES

EDITOR

AHMED ELMARAKBI

ADVANCED

COMPOSITE MATERIALS

FOR AUTOMOTIVE

APPLICATIONS

STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY

AND CRASHWORTHINESS

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ADVANCED COMPOSITE

MATERIALS FOR

AUTOMOTIVE

APPLICATIONS

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ADVANCED COMPOSITE

MATERIALS FOR

AUTOMOTIVE

APPLICATIONS

STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY

AND CRASHWORTHINESS

Editor

Ahmed Elmarakbi

University of Sunderland, UK

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This edition first published 2014

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Advanced composite materials for automotive applications : structural integrity and crashworthiness / [compiled by]

Ahmed Elmarakbi.

pages cm

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-118-42386-8 (cloth)

1. Composite materials in automobiles. 2. Automobiles–Crashworthiness. I. Elmarakbi, Ahmed.

TL240.5.C65A38 2014

629.2

32–dc23

2013023086

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN: 978-1-118-42386-8

Typeset in 10/12pt Times by Aptara Inc., New Delhi, India

1 2014

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Contents

About the Editor xv

List of Contributors xvii

Series Preface xxi

Preface xxiii

Part One FUNDAMENTAL BACKGROUND

1 Overview of Composite Materials and their Automotive Applications 3

Ali Hallal, Ahmed Elmarakbi, Ali Shaito and Hicham El-Hage

1.1 Introduction 3

1.2 Polymer Composite Materials 5

1.2.1 Non-Structural Composites 6

1.2.2 Semi-Structural Composites 6

1.2.3 Structural Composites 7

1.2.4 Laminated Composites 9

1.2.5 Textile Composites 9

1.2.6 Hybrid Composites 12

1.3 Application of Composite Materials in the Automotive Industry 12

1.3.1 Crashworthiness 13

1.3.2 Composite Driveshaft and Spring 15

1.3.3 Other Applications 16

1.4 Green Composites for Automotive Applications 17

1.5 Modelling the Mechanical Behaviour of Composite Materials 19

1.5.1 Modelling the Elastic Properties of Unidirectional Composites 19

1.5.2 Modelling of Laminated and Textile Composites 20

1.5.2.1 Analytical Modelling 20

1.5.2.2 Numerical FE Modelling 21

1.6 Discussion 22

1.7 Conclusion 23

References 24

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2 High-Volume Thermoplastic Composite Technology for

Automotive Structures 29

Neil Reynolds and Arun Balan Ramamohan

2.1 Introduction – Opportunities for Thermoplastic Composites 29

2.2 Recent Developments in Automotive TPCs 31

2.3 Case Study: Rapid Stamp-Formed Thermoplastic Composites 34

2.3.1 Materials Selection: Exploring the Potential of Aligned Fibre TPCs 34

2.3.2 Demonstrator Beam Component 37

2.3.3 TPC Process Development 38

2.3.4 Beam Manufacture 39

2.3.5 Demonstrator Beam Structural Performance 40

2.3.6 Environmental Impact Assessment 44

2.3.7 Economic Analysis 46

2.4 Conclusion 48

Acknowledgements 49

References 49

3 Development of Low-Cost Carbon Fibre for Automotive Applications 51

Alan Wheatley, David Warren, and Sujit Das

3.1 Introduction 51

3.2 Research Drivers: Energy Efficiency 52

3.3 Lightweight Automotive Materials 53

3.4 Barriers to Carbon Fibre Adoption in the Automotive Industry 55

3.5 Global Production and the Market for Carbon Fibre 58

3.6 Low-Cost Carbon Fibre Programme 60

3.6.1 Project Aims 61

3.6.2 Precursor Materials 61

3.6.2.1 Commodity PAN-Based Precursors 61

3.6.2.2 Lignin-Based Precursors 63

3.6.2.3 Polyolefin-Based Precursors 64

3.6.3 Advanced Processing Techniques 65

3.6.3.1 Microwave Assisted Plasma Processing 65

3.6.3.2 Advanced Stabilisation/Crosslinking 66

3.6.3.3 Plasma Oxidation 67

3.6.3.4 Advanced Surface Treatment and Sizing 69

3.6.4 Integration: Low-Cost Carbon Fibre Pilot Line 70

3.7 International Cooperation 72

Acknowledgements 72

References 72

Part Two IMPACT AND CRASH ANALYSIS

4 Mechanical Properties of Advanced Pore Morphology

Foam Composites 77

Matej Vesenjak, Lovre Krstulovic-Opara and Zoran Ren ´

4.1 Introduction 77

4.2 Cellular Materials 78

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Contents vii

4.2.1 Mechanical Behaviour of Cellular Materials 78

4.2.2 Energy Absorption Capabilities of Cellular Materials 80

4.2.3 Influence of Pore Fillers 81

4.2.4 Strain Rate Sensitivity of Cellular Materials 81

4.3 Advanced Pore Morphology Foam 83

4.4 Mechanical Properties of Single APM Foam Elements 84

4.5 Behaviour of Composite APM Foam 89

4.5.1 Compressive Loading of Confined APM Foam Elements

without Bonding 90

4.5.2 Partially Bonded APM Foam Elements 91

4.5.3 Fully Bonded APM Foam Elements – Syntactic Structure 93

4.6 Conclusion 96

Acknowledgements 96

References 96

5 Automotive Composite Structures for Crashworthiness 99

Dirk H.-J.A. Lukaszewicz

5.1 Introduction 99

5.2 Traffic Safety 99

5.3 Alternative Vehicles 101

5.4 Selective Overview of Worldwide Crash Tests 103

5.5 Structural Crash Management 106

5.5.1 Front Crash 106

5.5.2 Side Crash 108

5.6 Composite Materials for Crash Applications 110

5.6.1 Performance Metrics for Energy Absorbing Structures 111

5.6.2 Energy Absorbing Deformation Mechanisms in Composite

Profiles 113

5.7 Energy Absorption of Composite Profiles 115

5.7.1 Fibre Material 116

5.7.2 Matrix Material 117

5.7.3 Fibre Volume Fraction 118

5.7.4 Fibre Architecture 119

5.7.5 Trigger 121

5.7.6 Geometry 121

5.7.7 Test Speed 122

5.7.8 Test Direction 122

5.8 Conclusion 124

Acknowledgements 125

References 125

6 Crashworthiness Analysis of Composite and Thermoplastic Foam

Structure for Automotive Bumper Subsystem 129

Ermias Koricho, Giovanni Belingardi, Alem Tekalign, Davide Roncato and

Brunetto Martorana

6.1 Introduction 129

6.2 Materials for Automotive Applications 132

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6.3 Composite and Thermoplastic Materials 133

6.4 Numerical Modelling of Fiat 500 Frontal Transverse Beam 137

6.5 Standards for Low-Speed Frontal Impact 141

6.6 Bumper Beam Thickness Determination 141

6.7 Results and Discussion 142

6.8 Conclusion 145

References 146

7 Hybrid Structures Consisting of Sheet Metal and Fibre Reinforced

Plastics for Structural Automotive Applications 149

Christian Lauter, Thomas Troster and Corin Reuter ¨

7.1 Introduction and Motivation 149

7.2 Conventional Method for the Development of Composite Structures 150

7.3 Approaches to Automotive Lightweight Construction 151

7.4 Requirements for Automotive Structures 154

7.4.1 Mechanical Requirements 155

7.4.2 Load Adapted Design 155

7.4.3 Derivation of Reference Structures 157

7.5 Simulation 158

7.6 Manufacturing 160

7.6.1 Overview 160

7.6.2 Prepreg Press Technology: Basic Investigations

and Process Parameters 162

7.6.3 Prepreg Press Technology: Bonding of Composite Material

and Sheet Metal 163

7.7 Testing 165

7.7.1 Quasi-Static Tests 167

7.7.2 Crash Tests 168

7.8 New Methodology for the Product Engineering of Hybrid

Lightweight Structures 170

7.9 Conclusion 172

References 172

8 Nonlinear Strain Rate Dependent Micro-Mechanical Composite Material

Model for Crashworthiness Simulation 175

Ala Tabiei

8.1 Introduction 175

8.2 Micro-Mechanical Formulation 175

8.2.1 Equations for Micro-Mechanical Model 175

8.2.1.1 Constitutive Equations for Composite Materials 175

8.2.1.2 Micro-Mechanics Constitutive Model 176

8.2.1.3 Constitutive Matrices and Stress Update for the

Micro-Model 178

8.2.2 Failure Analysis 180

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8.2.3 Finite Element Implementation 181

8.2.3.1 Equations in Incremental Form 181

8.2.3.2 Localisation and Modification 183

8.2.4 Verification Examples 183

8.3 Strain Rate Dependent Effects 188

8.3.1 Strain Rate Effect Introduction and Review 188

8.3.1.1 Strain Rate Effect on Polymer Resin 188

8.3.1.2 State Variable Modelling Overview 189

8.3.2 One-Dimensional Equation and Material Constant

Determination 191

8.3.2.1 One-Dimensional Constitutive Equation 191

8.3.2.2 Material Constant Determination 192

8.3.3 Three-Dimensional Constitutive Equations 193

8.3.3.1 Original Flow Equation 193

8.3.3.2 Modified Equations with Shear Correction Factor 193

8.3.3.3 Three-Dimensional Extension of Internal Stress Evolution

Law 194

8.3.4 Finite Element Implementation 195

8.3.4.1 Shell Element Simulation 195

8.3.4.2 Solid Element Simulation 196

8.4 Numerical Results 197

8.5 Conclusion 203

References 203

9 Design Solutions to Improve CFRP Crash-Box Impact Efficiency for

Racing Applications 205

Simonetta Boria

9.1 Introduction 205

9.2 Composite Structures for Crashworthy Applications 207

9.3 Geometrical and Material Characterisation of the Impact Attenuator 214

9.4 Experimental Test 216

9.5 Finite Element Analysis and LS-DYNA 219

9.6 Comparison between Numerical and Experimental Analysis 220

9.7 Investigation of the Optimal Solution 221

9.8 Conclusion 224

References 224

Part Three DAMAGE AND FAILURE

10 Fracture and Failure Mechanisms for Different Loading Modes

in Unidirectional Carbon Fibre/Epoxy Composites 229

Victoria Mollon, Jorge Bonhomme, Jaime Vi ´ na and Antonio Arg ˜ uelles ¨

10.1 Introduction 229

10.2 Delamination Failure 230

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10.3 Objectives 232

10.4 Experimental Programme 233

10.4.1 Materials and Laminate Manufacturing 233

10.4.2 Testing Methods 235

10.4.2.1 Mode I Test Method 236

10.4.2.2 Mixed Mode I/II: ADCB Test 238

10.4.2.3 Mixed Mode I/II: MMB Test 238

10.4.2.4 Mode II Test Method 239

10.5 Numerical Simulations 240

10.5.1 Virtual Crack Closure Technique 241

10.5.2 Two-Step Extension Method 242

10.5.3 Cohesive Zone Model 242

10.6 Fractography 244

10.7 Results and Discussion 244

10.7.1 Experimental Results 244

10.7.2 Numerical Results 246

10.7.3 Fractographic Analysis 248

10.7.4 Stress State at the Crack Front 250

10.8 Conclusion 253

References 253

11 Numerical Simulation of Damages in FRP Laminated Structures under

Transverse Quasi-Static or Low-Velocity Impact Loads 257

Ning Hu, Ahmed Elmarakbi, Alamusi, Yaolu Liu, Hisao Fukunaga, Satoshi

Atobe and Tomonori Watanabe

11.1 Introduction 257

11.2 Theory 261

11.2.1 Theory of Finite Element Method 261

11.2.2 Damage Models 261

11.2.2.1 In-Plane Damage 261

11.2.2.2 Theory of Traditional Cohesive Element for Modelling

Delamination 264

11.3 Techniques for Overcoming Numerical Instability in Simulation of

Delamination Propagation 267

11.3.1 Artificial Damping Technique 267

11.3.2 Move-Limit Technique Enforced on Cohesive Zone 268

11.3.3 Adaptive Cohesive Model 271

11.3.3.1 Rate-Independent Adaptive Cohesive Model 271

11.3.3.2 Rate-Dependent Adaptive Cohesive Model 273

11.4 Numerical Examples 275

11.4.1 DCB Problem 275

11.4.1.1 Standard Numerical Simulations 276

11.4.1.2 Artificial Damping Technique 278

11.4.1.3 Move-Limit Technique 279

11.4.1.4 Rate-Independent ACM 281

11.4.1.5 Rate-Dependent ACM 284

11.4.2 Low-Velocity Impact Problem 286

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11.5 Conclusion 291

References 291

12 Building Delamination Fracture Envelope under Mode I/Mode II

Loading for FRP Composite Materials 293

Othman Al-Khudairi, Homayoun Hadavinia, Eoin Lewis, Barnaby Osborne

and Lee S. Bryars

12.1 Introduction 293

12.2 Experimental Studies 294

12.3 Mode I Delamination Testing: Double Cantilever Bending Test Analysis

and Results 296

12.4 Mode II Delamination Testing: End Notched Flexure Test Analysis

and Results 297

12.5 Mixed Mode I/II Delamination Testing: Mixed-Mode Bending Test Analysis

and Results 302

12.6 Fracture Failure Envelope 306

12.7 Conclusion 308

Nomenclature 309

References 309

Part Four CASE STUDIES AND DESIGNS

13 Metal Matrix Composites for Automotive Applications 313

Anthony Macke, Benjamin F. Schultz, Pradeep K. Rohatgi and Nikhil Gupta

13.1 Automotive Technologies 313

13.1.1 Current Landscape 313

13.1.2 Alternative Technologies 314

13.1.2.1 Hybrid Vehicles 314

13.1.2.2 Electric Vehicle 314

13.1.2.3 Fuel Cell or Hydrogen Vehicles 315

13.1.3 Promise for Lightweight Materials 315

13.1.4 Metal Matrix Composites 316

13.1.5 Cost–Benefit Analysis 318

13.2 Reinforcements 321

13.2.1 Solid Ceramic Reinforcements 321

13.2.2 Hollow Reinforcements 323

13.2.3 Carbon Based Materials 326

13.3 Automotive Applications 328

13.3.1 Powertrain 328

13.3.2 Cylinder Liner 328

13.3.3 Piston 330

13.3.4 Connecting Rod 331

13.3.5 Main and Other Bearings 332

13.3.6 Crankshaft 334

13.3.7 Valvetrain 335

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13.3.8 Engine Accessories 335

13.3.9 Drivetrain and Suspension 338

13.3.10 Transmission Housing 338

13.3.11 Differential Housing 338

13.3.12 Driveshaft 339

13.3.13 Brake 340

13.3.14 Mount 341

13.3.15 Impact Zone 341

13.3.16 Electronics 341

13.3.17 Battery 342

13.4 Conclusion 342

Acknowledgements 343

References 343

14 Development of a Composite Wheel with Integrated Hub Motor and

Requirements on Safety Components in Composite 345

Nicole Schweizer and Andreas Buter ¨

14.1 Introduction 345

14.1.1 Lightweight as a Key Technology for Automotive Engineering 345

14.2 Wheels Made from FRPs 349

14.2.1 Structural Durability of Lightweight Wheels Made from FRP 349

14.2.1.1 Requirements on Composite Wheels with Respect

to Fatigue 351

14.2.2 Operational Strength Verification of Wheels 352

14.2.3 Evidence of Operational Stability of Car Wheels Made from Plastic 355

14.2.4 Results of Fatigue Tests on Composite Wheels 356

14.2.4.1 Fatigue tests on CFRP wheels 356

14.3 Development of a Composite Wheel with Integrated Electric Motor 358

14.3.1 CFRP Lightweight Wheel with Integrated Electrical Motor –

Characteristic Data 358

14.3.2 Development Process 359

14.3.2.1 Technical Challenges for Multifunctional Design 359

14.3.2.2 Design of the Wheel 360

14.3.2.3 Manufacturing 362

14.4 Multifunctional Design – Requirements regarding Structural Durability and

System Reliability 364

14.4.1 Reliability Analysis of Multifunctional Systems 364

14.4.2 Qualitative Reliability Analysis of Multifunctional Systems

Performed on CFRP Wheel with Integrated Hub Motor under

Operation 364

14.4.2.1 Quantitative System Reliability Analysis of

Multifunctional Systems Performed on CFRP Wheel

with Integrated Hub Motor under Operation 365

14.5 Conclusion 369

References 370

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Contents xiii

15 Composite Materials in Automotive Body Panels, Concerning Noise

and Vibration 371

Peyman Honarmandi

15.1 Introduction 371

15.2 Composite Materials in Automobile Bodies 371

15.3 Multilayer Composite Materials in Noise and Vibration Treatment 372

15.4 Case Studies 373

15.4.1 Case Study I: Modal Analysis of Vehicle Hood 373

15.4.2 Case Study II: Modal Analysis of Two- or Three-Layer

Damping Treatment 382

15.4.2.1 Unconstrained Layer Damping Treatment 382

15.4.2.2 Constrained Layer Damping Treatment 383

15.5 Conclusion 386

References 387

16 Composite Materials for Automotive Braking Systems 389

David C. Barton

16.1 Introduction 389

16.2 Materials Requirements for Brake Rotors 390

16.3 Cast Iron Rotors 392

16.4 Carbon Composite Rotors 393

16.4.1 Carbon–Carbon Composites 393

16.4.2 Ceramic Matrix Carbon Composites 394

16.5 Light Alloy Composite Rotors 395

16.6 Evaluation of Composite Disc Materials 395

16.7 Surface Engineering of Light Alloy Brake Discs 398

16.8 Friction Material 400

16.8.1 Material Requirements 400

16.8.2 Overview of Friction Material Formulations 401

16.8.3 Evaluation of Friction Material Performance 401

16.9 Conclusion 402

References 403

17 Low-Cost Carbon Fibre: Applications, Performance and Cost Models 405

Alan Wheatley, David Warren and Sujit Das

17.1 Current and Proposed Carbon Fibre Applications 405

17.2 Carbon Fibre Polymer Composites: Cost Benefits and Obstacles

for Automobiles 407

17.3 Performance Modelling 414

17.3.1 Weight Saving Models 417

17.3.2 Models for Density. Stiffness and Strength 418

17.3.3 Carbon Fibre Sheet Moulding Compounds 422

17.3.4 Performance Modelling Summary 426