Additive manufacturing : Innovations, advances, and applications

Additive

MAnufActuring

Innovations, Advances, and Applications

(a) Photograph of the developed

micro-stereolithography system.

(From Chapter 4, Figure 4.4A,

Authors: Jae-Won Choi, Yanfeng Lu,

and Ryan B. Wicker)

(b) Microstructures of powder bed

sample after etching.

(A) Powder with different sizes

(optical micrograph)

(B) Single particle (optical

micrograph)

(C) Single particle (scanning

electron micrograph)

(From Chapter 7, Figure 7.9A–C,

Authors: Xibing Going, James Lydon,

Kenneth Cooper, and Kevin Chou)

(c) Key low thermal budget annealing

technologies for advanced material

and device development.

(From Chapter 5, Figure 5.6,

Authors: Pooran C. Joshi, Teja

Kuruganti, and Chad E. Duty)

(d) Some complex SLM parts.

(A) Stainless steel mold with

conformal cooling to enhance

the productivity in injection

molding

(B) Ti6Al4V thin wall structures

(C) 316L stainless steel heating

plate for aerospace industry

(D) Advanced nozzle with internal

cooling system from AlSi10Mg

alloy

(E) Stainless steel artistic flower

(F) Ti6Al4V biomedical acetabular cup with advanced cellular porosity for improved

biocompatibility

(G) CoCr dental parts

(From Chapter 3, Figure 3.2 A–G, Authors: Jean-Pierre Kruth, Sasan Dadbakhsh, Bey Vrancken,

Karolien Kempen, Jef Vleugels, and Jan Van Humbeeck)

(e) (A) Macroscopic images of a four-layered hydrogel scaffold: Top view

(B) Macroscopic images of a four-layered hydrogel scaffold: Side view

(C) Optical micrographs of scaffold microarchitecture (needle Ø 250 µm, fiber spacing 1 mm); scale

bar: 250 µm

(D) Higher magnification of the intersection between fibers; scale bar: 250 µm

(From Chapter 16, Figure 16.2, Authors: Sara Maria Giannitelli, Pamela Mozetic, Marcella Trombetta,

and Alberto Rainer)

(f) Photograph of experimental apparatus. Soldering iron and wire feeder attached to 6 axis robotic arm

and used to deposit lead-free solder tracks from a substrate mounted in the sample holder

(From Chapter 2, part of Figure 2.2, Author: Abinand Rangesh)

Captions for Figures on Cover

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Additive

MAnufActuring

Innovations, Advances, and Applications

Edited by

t.S. Srivatsan • t.S. Sudarshan

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v

Contents

Preface..............................................................................................................................................vii

Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................................ix

Editors...............................................................................................................................................xi

Contributors................................................................................................................................... xiii

Chapter 1 Additive Manufacturing of Materials: Viable Techniques,

Metals, Advances, Advantages, and Applications.......................................................1

T.S. Srivatsan, K. Manigandan, and T.S. Sudarshan

Chapter 2 Additive Manufacturing Using Free Space

Deposition in Metals: Experiment and Theory..........................................................49

Abinand Rangesh

Chapter 3 Additive Manufacturing of Metals via Selective Laser

Melting: Process Aspects and Material Developments..............................................69

Jean-Pierre Kruth, Sasan Dadbakhsh, Bey Vrancken, Karolien Kempen,

Jef Vleugels, and Jan Van Humbeeck

Chapter 4 Projection Microstereolithography as a Micro-Additive Manufacturing

Technology: Processes, Materials, and Applications............................................... 101

Jae-Won Choi, Yanfeng Lu, and Ryan B. Wicker

Chapter 5 Printed and Hybrid Electronics Enabled by

Digital Additive Manufacturing Technologies......................................................... 131

Pooran C. Joshi, Teja Kuruganti, and Chad E. Duty

Chapter 6 Application of Radiometry in Laser Powder

Deposition Additive Manufacturing......................................................................... 155

Joshua J. Hammell, Michael A. Langerman,

James L. Tomich, and Brett L. Trotter

Chapter 7 Powder and Part Characterizations in Electron

Beam Melting Additive Manufacturing ................................................................... 179

Xibing Gong, James Lydon, Kenneth Cooper, and Kevin Chou

Chapter 8 Simulation of Powder-Based Additive Manufacturing Processes............................ 199

Deepankar Pal, Chong Teng, and Brent Stucker

vi Contents

Chapter 9 Advances in Additive Manufacturing: Effect of Process Parameters

on Microstructure and Properties of Laser-Deposited Materials............................. 253

Mohsen Eshraghi and Sergio D. Felicelli

Chapter 10 Integration of Gas-Permeable Structures

in Laser Additive Manufactured Products...............................................................285

Christoph Klahn and Mirko Meboldt

Chapter 11 Additive Manufacturing of Components from Engineering Ceramics.................... 311

James D. McGuffin-Cawley

Chapter 12 Reactive Inkjet Printing of Nylon Materials

for Additive Manufacturing Applications................................................................ 331

Saeed Fathi

Chapter 13 Comparison of Additive Manufacturing Materials

and Human Tissues in Computed Tomography Scanning ....................................... 353

John Winder, Darren Thompson, and Richard Bibb

Chapter 14 Additive Manufacturing of Medical Devices...........................................................369

Jayanthi Parthasarathy

Chapter 15 Medical Applications of Additive Manufacturing ................................................... 389

Jayanthi Parthasarathy

Chapter 16 Additive Manufacturing of Pluronic/Alginate

Composite Thermogels for Drug and Cell Delivery ................................................403

Sara Maria Giannitelli, Pamela Mozetic,

Marcella Trombetta, and Alberto Rainer

Chapter 17 Additive Manufacturing of Rare Earth Permanent Magnets................................... 413

Vemuru V. Krishnamurthy

Index.............................................................................................................................................. 431

vii

Preface

The innovation of creating a three-dimensional object layer by layer using computer-aided design

(CAD) was originally termed rapid prototyping, a valuable technique that was developed in the

early 1980s for the purpose of manufacturing. In its early stages, rapid prototyping was typically

used to create models and prototype parts and offered quick realization of what engineers had

envisioned. Rapid prototyping was one of the preliminary processes that eventually culminated

in additive manufacturing (AM), which allows the production of actual printed parts, in addition

to models. The most notable advances the process offers are the development and production of

products with a noticeable reduction in both time and cost, facilitated by increased human interac￾tion and optimization of the product development cycle, thus making it possible to create almost

any shape that would otherwise be difficult to machine using conventional techniques. With the

emergence of additive manufacturing, scientists, engineers, and even students can rapidly build and

analyze models for the purpose of theoretical comprehension and related studies. In the medical

profession, doctors have been able to build models of various parts of the body to analyze injuries or

disease and to plan appropriate medical procedures. Additive manufacturing has also made it pos￾sible for market researchers to gather the opinions of potential buyers of newly developed products

and for artists to explore their creativity.

The gradual growth and eventual transition of rapid prototyping to three-dimensional (3D) print￾ing have allowed the process to gain ground as a valuable process for making prototype parts among

manufacturers of many types. In recent months, several companies have implemented the actual use

of 3D printing to make prototype parts. Major manufacturers such as Boeing, Airbus Industries,

General Electric, and even Siemens are using AM to develop a number of high-value production

parts. Siemens has been using additive manufacturing to produce over 100 different types of spare

parts and other gas turbine components, resulting in a reduction in repair time of as much as 90%

in some cases. Siemens predicts that 3D printing will revolutionize the availability and supply of

spare parts. Normally, spare parts have been mass produced, stored, and then shipped as needed;

however, additive manufacturing has allowed Siemens to print them as required. Likewise, the

aerospace industry is using additive manufacturing to produce lighter parts with reduced material

waste as compared to traditional subtractive machining. Most recently, a United Kingdom–based

automotive and aerospace parts maker, in collaboration with Airbus, developed a titanium bracket

that was 3D printed in 40 minutes vs. 4 hours by conventional machining, cutting material usage by

well over 50%. The ability to utilize additive manufacturing near the point of use allows on-demand

manufacturing and drastically reduces both inventory and wasted time. This has made possible the

rapid growth of additive manufacturing since its initiation in 1988. Over the next two decades, the

annual growth rate of worldwide revenues of all additive manufacturing products and services was

25.4%, but from 2010 to 2013 the growth rate was 27.4%.

This book consists of 17 chapters. To meet the needs of different readers, each chapter provides

a clear, compelling, and complete discussion of the subject matter. The first chapter introduces the

reader to the techniques that are viable for metallic materials while highlighting the advantages of

each technique with specific reference to technological applications. In the next two chapters, the

contributing authors present and discuss additive manufacturing of metals using the techniques of

free space deposition (Chapter 2) and selective laser melting (Chapter 3). In Chapters 4 and 5, the

contributing authors provide an overview of specific technologies related to additive manufacturing.

The next three chapters discuss various aspects pertinent to powder-based additive manufac￾turing: the application of radiometry in laser powder deposition-based additive manufacturing

(Chapter 6), the use of powders in electron beam melting (Chapter 7), and advanced concepts aimed

viii Preface

at studying and understanding the simulation of powder-based additive manufacturing processes

(Chapter 8). Chapter 9 then presents the influence of process parameters on microstructure and

the properties of laser-deposited materials, and Chapter 10 addresses the integration of gas-perme￾able structures. The use of additive manufacturing for components made from ceramic materials

is discussed in Chapter 11. With specific reference to polymeric materials, Chapter 12 provides a

comprehensive overview of key aspects related to reactive inkjet printing of nylon materials for the

purpose of additive manufacturing. The next several chapters on biomedical applications of additive

manufacturing were written by renowned experts in their fields. Chapter 13 provides a comparison

between additive manufacturing materials and human tissues, Chapters 14 and 15 address the use of

additive manufacturing for medical devices, and the use of additive manufacturing for drug and cell

delivery is presented in Chapter 16. The relevance of additive manufacturing to rare earth magnets

is the focus of Chapter 17. In each chapter, the contributing authors have made an attempt to pres￾ent applications of the particular additive manufacturing technologies being discussed, the future

prospects and far-reaching applications of those technologies, and developments to be made in areas

that have been considered to be either impossible or uneconomical in the past.

Overall, this text on additive manufacturing provides a solid background for understanding the

immediate past, the ongoing present, and emerging trends, with an emphasis on innovations and

advances in its use for a wide spectrum of manufacturing applications, including the human health￾care system. This text can very well serve as a single reference book or even as textbook for

1. Seniors in undergraduate programs in the fields of materials science and engineering, man￾ufacturing engineering, and biomedical engineering

2. Beginning graduate students

3. Researchers in both research and industrial laboratories who are studying various aspects

related to materials, products, and additive manufacturing

4. Engineers seeking technologically novel and economically viable innovations for a spec￾trum of both performance-critical and non-performance-critical applications

We anticipate that this bound volume will be of much interest to scientists, engineers, technologists,

and entrepreneurs.

MATLAB® is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product information, please

contact:

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Web: www.mathworks.com

ix

Acknowledgments

The editors gratefully acknowledge the understanding and valued support they received from the

authors of the various chapters contained in this text. Efforts made by the contributing authors to

present and discuss the different topics greatly enhance the scientific and technological content and

are very much appreciated. The useful comments and suggestions made by the referees on each

chapter further helped to elevate the technical content and merit of the final version of each chapter.

Our publisher, CRC Press, has been very supportive and patient throughout the entire process,

beginning with the conception of this intellectual project. We extend an abundance of thanks, val￾ued appreciation, and gratitude to the editorial staff at CRC Press. Specifically, we must men￾tion Allison Shatkin, senior acquisitions editor for materials science and chemical engineering,

and Amber Donley, project coordinator, editorial project development, for their sustained interest,

involvement, attention, and energetic assistance stemming from understanding coupled with an

overall willingness to help both the editors and the contributing authors. They ensured timely exe￾cution of the numerous intricacies related to smooth completion of this volume, from the moment

of its approval and up until compilation and publication. At moments of need, the editors greatly

appreciated Amber Donley’s support while she remained courteous, professional, and enthusiasti￾cally helpful.

Special thanks inlaid with an abundance of appreciation are also extended to Dr. K. Manigandan,

research scholar (research associate) at The University of Akron, Ohio, for his almost ceaseless,

relentless, and tireless efforts to ensure proper formatting and layout of the chapters. Of course,

most importantly and worthy of recording, is that the timely compilation and publication of this

bound volume would not have been possible without the understanding, cooperation, assistance, and

patience of the authors and the positive contributions of the peer reviewers.

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xi

Editors

T.S. Srivatsan, PhD, professor of materials science and

Engineering in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at

The University of Akron, earned his master’s of science degree

in aerospace engineering in 1981 and his doctoral degree in

mechanical engineering in 1984 from the Georgia Institute of

Technology. Dr. Srivatsan joined the Department of Mechanical

Engineering faculty at The University of Akron in 1987. Since

then, he has instructed undergraduate and graduate courses in

the areas of advanced materials and manufacturing processes,

mechanical behavior of materials, fatigue of engineering mate￾rials and structures, fracture mechanics, materials science and

engineering, mechanical measurements, design of mechanical systems, and mechanical engineer￾ing laboratory. His research areas currently include the fatigue and fracture behavior of advanced

materials, including monolithic, intermetallic, and nano-materials and metal–matrix composites;

processing techniques for advanced materials and nanostructure materials; relationships between

processing and mechanical behavior; electron microscopy; failure analysis; and mechanical design.

Dr. Srivatsan has authored or edited 57 books in such areas as cross-pollinating mechanical design;

processing and fabrication of advanced materials; deformation, fatigue, and fracture of ordered

intermetallic materials; machining of composites; failure analysis; and technology of rapid solidi￾fication processing of materials. He serves as co-editor of the International Journal on Materials

and Manufacturing Processes and is on the editorial advisory board of several journals within the

domain of materials science and engineering. He has delivered over 200 technical presentations at

national and international meetings and symposia, technical/professional societies, and research

and educational institutions. He has authored or co-authored over 700 archival publications, includ￾ing articles in international journals, chapters in books, proceedings of national and international

conferences, reviews of books, and technical reports. In recognition of his efforts, contributions, and

impact on furthering science, technology, and education, Dr. Srivatsan has been elected a fellow of

the American Society for Materials, International; a fellow of the American Society of Mechanical

Engineers; and a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. He has also

been recognized as outstanding young alumnus of Georgia Institute of Technology and outstanding

research faculty of the College of Engineering at The University of Akron, in addition to receiving

the Dean Louis Hill Award for exceptional dedication and service. He has also consulted with the

U.S. Air Force and U.S. Navy, national research laboratories, and industries related to aerospace,

automotive, power generation, leisure-related products, and applied medical sciences.

T.S. Sudarshan, PhD, earned his bachelor of technology degree

in metallurgy from the Indian Institute of Technology, Madras,

and later completed his master’s of science and doctoral degrees

in materials engineering science from Virginia Polytechnic

Institute and State University. Dr Sudarshan is currently the

president and CEO of Materials Modification, Inc., which is at

the forefront of research, development, and commercialization

of advanced materials utilizing novel processing techniques. He

has demonstrated technological leadership for well over three

decades and has worked extensively throughout his career in the

areas of nanotechnology and surface engineering, for which he

xii Editors

is well known throughout the world. Through his leadership, over $60 million in funding has been

raised for the primary purpose of very high-risk, high-payoff advanced technology-related pro￾grams in several non-traditional areas. Dr. Sudarshan has published well over 170 papers in archival

journals and has edited 29 books on surface modification technologies and advanced materials. He

is currently the editor of two international journals and holds numerous patents. In recognition of

his efforts, contributions, and impact on furthering science, technology, and its far-reaching applica￾tions, he has been elected as a fellow of the American Society for Materials, International; a fellow

of the International Federation for Heat Treatment and Surface Engineering; and a fellow of the

Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining. He was conferred with the distinguished alumni award

of the Indian Institute of Technology on Institute Day in 2014.

xiii

Contributors

Richard Bibb

Loughborough Design School

Loughborough University

Loughborough, United Kingdom

Jae-Won Choi

Department of Mechanical Engineering

The University of Akron

Akron, Ohio

Kevin Chou

Mechanical Engineering Department

The University of Alabama

Tuscaloosa, Alabama

Kenneth Cooper

Additive Manufacturing Laboratory

Marshall Space Flight Center

Huntsville, Alabama

Sasan Dadbakhsh

Department of Mechanical Engineering

University of Leuven (KU Leuven)

Leuven, Belgium

Chad E. Duty

Oak Ridge National Laboratory

Oak Ridge, Tennessee

Mohsen Eshraghi

Department of Mechanical Engineering

California State University, Los Angeles

Los Angeles, California

Saeed Fathi

Additive Manufacturing Research Group

Wolfson School of Mechanical and

Manufacturing Engineering

Loughborough University

Loughborough, United Kingdom

Sergio D. Felicelli

Department of Mechanical Engineering

The University of Akron

Akron, Ohio

Sara Maria Giannitelli

Department of Engineering, Tissue

Engineering Unit

Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma

Rome, Italy

Xibing Gong

Mechanical Engineering Department

The University of Alabama

Tuscaloosa, Alabama

Joshua J. Hammell

Department of Mechanical Engineering

South Dakota School of Mines and Technology

Rapid City, South Dakota

Pooran C. Joshi

Oak Ridge National Laboratory

Oak Ridge, Tennessee

Karolien Kempen

Department of Mechanical Engineering

University of Leuven (KU Leuven)

Leuven, Belgium

and

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Technology

Katholieke Universiteit Leuven

Geel, Belgium

Christoph Klahn

Product Development Group Zurich pd|z

ETH Zurich

Zurich, Switzerland

xiv Contributors

Vemuru V. Krishnamurthy

School of Physics, Astronomy, and

Computational Sciences

George Mason University

Fairfax, Virginia

Jean-Pierre Kruth

Department of Mechanical Engineering

University of Leuven (KU Leuven)

Leuven, Belgium

Teja Kuruganti

Oak Ridge National Laboratory

Oak Ridge, Tennessee

Michael A. Langerman

Department of Mechanical Engineering

South Dakota School of Mines and Technology

Rapid City, South Dakota

Yanfeng Lu

Department of Mechanical Engineering

The University of Akron

Akron, Ohio

James Lydon

Additive Manufacturing Laboratory

Marshall Space Flight Center

Huntsville, Alabama

K. Manigandan

Department of Mechanical Engineering

The University of Akron

Akron, Ohio

James D. McGuffin-Cawley

Department of Materials Science and

Engineering

Case Western Reserve University

Cleveland, Ohio

Mirko Meboldt

Product Development Group Zurich pd|z

ETH Zurich

Zurich, Switzerland

Pamela Mozetic

Department of Engineering, Tissue

Engineering Unit

Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma

Rome, Italy

Deepankar Pal

Department of Industrial Engineering

University of Louisville

Louisville, Kentucky

Jayanthi Parthasarathy

MedCAD

Dallas, Texas

Alberto Rainer

Department of Engineering, Tissue

Engineering Unit

Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma

Rome, Italy

Abinand Rangesh

Lumi Ventures, LLC

Brookline, Massachusetts

T.S. Srivatsan

Department of Mechanical Engineering

The University of Akron

Akron, Ohio

Brent Stucker

Department of Industrial Engineering

University of Louisville

Louisville, Kentucky

T.S. Sudarshan

Materials Modification, Inc.

Fairfax, Virginia

Chong Teng

Department of Industrial Engineering

University of Louisville

Louisville, Kentucky

Darren Thompson

Regional Medical Physics Department

Newcastle upon Tyne Hospitals NHS Trust

Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom

James L. Tomich

Department of Materials Engineering and

Science

South Dakota School of Mines and Technology

Rapid City, South Dakota